Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time.
Einstein supported the Allies, but generally denounced the idea of nuclear weapons. ==Life and career== === Early life and education === Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879 into a family of secular Ashkenazi Jews.
In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J.
At the age of eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient alternating current (AC) standard.
At the end of December 1894, he traveled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.
As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics. Einstein was born in the German Empire, but moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg) the following year.
Kant became his favorite philosopher, his tutor stating: "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him." In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH).
On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school, he attended the Argovian cantonal school (gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling.
On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school, he attended the Argovian cantonal school (gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling.
In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service.
In September 1896, he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1–6.
In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school (later renamed as ETH Zurich) in Zürich, graduating in 1900.
After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements. Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made.
In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school (later renamed as ETH Zurich) in Zürich, graduating in 1900.
In 1900, Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics and was awarded the Federal teaching diploma.
Konenkova was a Russian spy who was married to the noted Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov (who created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton). === Patent office === After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post.
Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook. === First scientific papers === In 1900, Einstein's paper "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena") was published in the journal Annalen der Physik.
The four papers are: === Statistical mechanics === ==== Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics ==== Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction.
Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. ==== Zero-point energy ==== In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory".
In 1901 he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903 he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern.
He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901, but was not conscripted for medical reasons.
It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena".
Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view.
In 1901 he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903 he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern.
The contents of Einstein's letter in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903.
His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. ==== Theory of critical opalescence ==== Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point.
In May 1904, their son Hans Albert Einstein was born in Bern, Switzerland.
His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. ==== Theory of critical opalescence ==== Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point.
His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in "Einstein" becoming synonymous with "genius". In 1905, a year sometimes described as his annus mirabilis ('miracle year'), Einstein published four groundbreaking papers.
In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich.
On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor.
In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others. === 1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers === The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905.
These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist.
Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. === Special relativity === Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year.
Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies).
So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself. This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects. === Old quantum theory === ==== Photons and energy quanta ==== In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta).
This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. === Quantum mechanics === ==== Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics ==== Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect.
Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. ==== Wave–particle duality ==== Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia.
Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity. === General relativity === ==== General relativity and the equivalence principle ==== General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915.
Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity.
In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and deflection of light. In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies.
But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect. ==== Quantized atomic vibrations ==== In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator.
In 1908, Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime.
In 1908, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern.
Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909. Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so.
In "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles.
Their son Eduard was born in Zürich in July 1910.
He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be." He spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" regarding his love for Marie. Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919, after having a relationship with her since 1912.
Peter Debye refined this model. ==== Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables ==== Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems.
Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909. Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so.
In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918). Based on calculations Einstein had made in 1911 using his new theory of general relativity, light from another star should be bent by the Sun's gravity.
In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and deflection of light. In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies.
Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant.
Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. ==== Zero-point energy ==== In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory".
He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be." He spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" regarding his love for Marie. Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919, after having a relationship with her since 1912.
In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zürich.
From 1912 until 1914, he was a professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics.
Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California.
He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations.
Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. ==== Zero-point energy ==== In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory".
In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin.
The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Marić returned to Zürich with their sons after learning that despite their close relationship before, Einstein's chief romantic attraction was now his cousin Elsa Löwenthal; she was his first cousin maternally and the second cousin paternally.
From 1912 until 1914, he was a professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics.
He joined the academy and thus Berlin University on 1 April 1914.
Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity. === General relativity === ==== General relativity and the equivalence principle ==== General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915.
After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the [argument] was mistaken and abandoned the theory in November 1915. ==== Physical cosmology ==== In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.
He then extended the theory to gravitational fields; he published a paper on general relativity in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation.
In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918). Based on calculations Einstein had made in 1911 using his new theory of general relativity, light from another star should be bent by the Sun's gravity.
Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. ====Gravitational waves==== In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation.
In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe.
In 1917, Einstein became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again – Prussian this time.
The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its director.
After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the [argument] was mistaken and abandoned the theory in November 1915. ==== Physical cosmology ==== In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.
This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard. The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others. ==== Wormholes ==== In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges.
Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation". ==== Political and religious views ==== In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party.
They divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.
He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be." He spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" regarding his love for Marie. Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919, after having a relationship with her since 1912.
In 1919, that prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919.
On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown". In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant.
Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university. == In popular culture == Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities, beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919.
On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown". In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. ==== Equations of motion ==== The theory of general relativity has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations, which describe how space curves.
He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory.
In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".
Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921.
He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925. === 1921–1922: Travels abroad === Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions.
On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual, and political figures, and delivered a lecture at King's College London. He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville, who published his own impressions in Democracy in America (1835).
Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.
Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true". Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him. == Awards and honors == Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".
None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. ==Publications== ===Scientific=== First of a series of papers on this topic. A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, . .
In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".
The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy." In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited Singapore, Ceylon and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese.
In his own travel diaries from his 1922–23 visit to Asia, he expresses some views on the Chinese, Japanese and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they were rediscovered in 2018. Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922.
Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true". Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him. == Awards and honors == Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".
None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. ==Publications== ===Scientific=== First of a series of papers on this topic. A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, . .
Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936. In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam.
While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat even the cited photoelectric work as an explanation but merely as a discovery of the law, as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by S.
Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. ==== Bose–Einstein statistics ==== In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles.
He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925. === 1921–1922: Travels abroad === Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions.
Einstein has said "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination". === Personal life === ==== Assisting Zionist causes ==== Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925 and was among its first Board of Governors.
In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'.
However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists.
Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics.
This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. === Quantum mechanics === ==== Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics ==== Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect.
Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation. ==== Einstein refrigerator ==== In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator.
He later adopted a more balanced view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin: "In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice.
This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of 1931 and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932.
Einstein's former physics professor Hendrik Lorentz and the Polish chemist Marie Curie were also members of the committee. === 1930–1931: Travel to the US === In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology.
Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation. ==== Einstein refrigerator ==== In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator.
On 11 November 1930, was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator.
He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5-year studentship, but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.
He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet.
This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of 1931 and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932.
In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant.
The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi, with whom he exchanged written letters.
This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of 1931 and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932.
In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power.
They emigrated to the United States in 1933.
Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis". === 1933: Emigration to the US === In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena.
In February and March 1933, the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.
The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp. ==== Refugee status ==== In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.
In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years.
To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him at his secluded cabin, with a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein, published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George.
Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists.
Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. ==== Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study ==== In October 1933, Einstein returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.
He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5-year studentship, but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.
Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936. In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam.
He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5-year studentship, but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.
This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard. The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others. ==== Wormholes ==== In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges.
Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics. ==== Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox ==== In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in the "EPR paper".
Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936. In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam.
He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet.
During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully. ==== World War II and the Manhattan Project ==== In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research.
He settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940.
At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided on his future.
When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946 Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a [black college], where he was awarded an honorary degree.
Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic, for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, was also important. Einstein was not a nationalist; he was against the creation of an independent Jewish state, which would be established without his help as Israel in 1948.
I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. === Death === On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948.
In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".
Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951.
Upon his death while in office in November 1952 and at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.
He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity." In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish.
Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time.
He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5-year studentship, but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.
I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. === Death === On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948.
Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California.
Bell had delineated in 1964.
Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton, New Jersey, and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J.
By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16.
But as a physical principle, local realism was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, which J.
None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. ==Publications== ===Scientific=== First of a series of papers on this topic. A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, . .
Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986).
It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.
In a volume of letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006, Einstein described about six women, including Margarete Lebach (a blonde Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while being married to Elsa.
The astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that it may be exaggerated. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe.
On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.
His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally being committed permanently after her death. In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings for her.
Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves, detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. ==== Hole argument and Entwurf theory ==== While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory.
Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California.
Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves, detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. ==== Hole argument and Entwurf theory ==== While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory.
In his own travel diaries from his 1922–23 visit to Asia, he expresses some views on the Chinese, Japanese and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they were rediscovered in 2018. Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922.
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