Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 18237 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator.
He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society 1873. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Alfred Russel Wallace was born on 8 January 1823 in Llanbadoc, Monmouthshire.
There he attended Hertford Grammar School until financial difficulties forced his family to withdraw him in 1836 when he was aged 14. Wallace then moved to London to board with his older brother John, a 19-year-old apprentice builder.
He left London in 1837 to live with William and work as his apprentice for six years.
At the end of 1839, they moved to Kington, Herefordshire, near the Welsh border, before eventually settling at Neath in Wales.
Between 1840 and 1843, Wallace did land surveying work in the countryside of the west of England and Wales.
Although his friend Charles Darwin had written to him in 1842 expressing support for transmutation, Lyell had continued to be strongly opposed to the idea.
Between 1840 and 1843, Wallace did land surveying work in the countryside of the west of England and Wales.
By the end of 1843, William's business had declined due to difficult economic conditions, and Wallace, at the age of 20, left in January. One result of Wallace's early travels is a modern controversy about his nationality.
Bates was 19 years old, and in 1843 he had published a paper on beetles in the journal Zoologist.
Wallace persuaded his brother John to join him in starting another architecture and civil engineering firm, which carried out a number of projects, including the design of a building for the Neath Mechanics' Institute, founded in 1843.
His brother William died in March 1845, and Wallace left his teaching position to assume control of his brother's firm in Neath, but his brother John and he were unable to make the business work.
Wallace wrote to Henry Bates in 1845: In 1847, he wrote to Bates: Wallace deliberately planned some of his fieldwork to test the hypothesis that under an evolutionary scenario closely related species should inhabit neighbouring territories.
Wallace wrote to Henry Bates in 1845: In 1847, he wrote to Bates: Wallace deliberately planned some of his fieldwork to test the hypothesis that under an evolutionary scenario closely related species should inhabit neighbouring territories.
Wallace's essay was presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858, along with excerpts from an essay which Darwin had disclosed privately to Hooker in 1847 and a letter Darwin had written to Asa Gray in 1857. Communication with Wallace in the far-off Malay Archipelago involved months of delay, so he was not part of this rapid publication.
In 1848, Wallace and Henry Bates left for Brazil aboard the Mischief.
In 1849, they were briefly joined by another young explorer, botanist Richard Spruce, along with Wallace's younger brother Herbert.
On 12 July 1852, Wallace embarked for the UK on the brig Helen.
During his work in the Amazon basin, he came to realise that geographical barriers—such as the Amazon and its major tributaries—often separated the ranges of closely allied species, and he included these observations in his 1853 paper "On the Monkeys of the Amazon".
He also made connections with a number of other British naturalists. From 1854 to 1862, age 31 to 39, Wallace travelled through the Malay Archipelago or East Indies (now Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens for sale and to study natural history.
Near the end of the paper he asks the question, "Are very closely allied species ever separated by a wide interval of country?" In February 1855, while working in Sarawak on the island of Borneo, Wallace wrote "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", a paper which was published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History in September 1855.
In the first letter, dated 1 May 1857, Darwin commented that Wallace's letter of 10 October which he had recently received, as well as Wallace's paper "On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species" of 1855, showed that they thought alike, with similar conclusions, and said that he was preparing his own work for publication in about two years time.
Around the start of 1856, he told Darwin about Wallace's paper, as did Edward Blyth who thought it "Good! Upon the whole! ...
Darwin demurred at first, then began writing up a species sketch of his continuing work in May 1856. Browne Charles Darwin: Voyaging pp.
In the first letter, dated 1 May 1857, Darwin commented that Wallace's letter of 10 October which he had recently received, as well as Wallace's paper "On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species" of 1855, showed that they thought alike, with similar conclusions, and said that he was preparing his own work for publication in about two years time.
The second letter, dated 22 December 1857, said how glad he was that Wallace was theorising about distribution, adding that "without speculation there is no good and original observation" but commented that "I believe I go much further than you".
Wallace's essay was presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858, along with excerpts from an essay which Darwin had disclosed privately to Hooker in 1847 and a letter Darwin had written to Asa Gray in 1857. Communication with Wallace in the far-off Malay Archipelago involved months of delay, so he was not part of this rapid publication.
He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin's writings in 1858.
In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's own theory, in the same year. Accounts of his studies and adventures there were eventually published in 1869 as The Malay Archipelago, which became one of the most popular books of scientific exploration of the 19th century, and has never been out of print.
537–46. ===Natural selection and Darwin=== By February 1858, Wallace had been convinced by his biogeographical research in the Malay Archipelago that evolution was real.
From 1858 to 1861, he rented a house on Ternate from the Dutchman Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode, which he used as a base for expeditions to other islands such as Gilolo. Wallace describes how he discovered natural selection as follows: Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of the correspondents whose observations Darwin used to support his own theories.
Wallace believed this and sent Darwin his February 1858 essay, "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type", asking Darwin to review it and pass it to Charles Lyell if he thought it worthwhile.
Darwin received the essay on 18 June 1858.
Wallace's essay was presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858, along with excerpts from an essay which Darwin had disclosed privately to Hooker in 1847 and a letter Darwin had written to Asa Gray in 1857. Communication with Wallace in the far-off Malay Archipelago involved months of delay, so he was not part of this rapid publication.
They point to a largely overlooked passage of Wallace's famous 1858 paper: The cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson observed in the 1970s that, although writing it only as an example, Wallace had "probably said the most powerful thing that'd been said in the 19th Century".
The reaction to the reading was muted, with the president of the Linnean Society remarking in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any striking discoveries; but, with Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species later in 1859, its significance became apparent.
During the 1860s, Wallace wrote papers and gave lectures defending natural selection.
The Wallaces had three children: Herbert (1867–1874), Violet (1869–1945), and William (1871–1951). ===Financial struggles=== In the late 1860s and 1870s, Wallace was very concerned about the financial security of his family.
From 1858 to 1861, he rented a house on Ternate from the Dutchman Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode, which he used as a base for expeditions to other islands such as Gilolo. Wallace describes how he discovered natural selection as follows: Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of the correspondents whose observations Darwin used to support his own theories.
He also made connections with a number of other British naturalists. From 1854 to 1862, age 31 to 39, Wallace travelled through the Malay Archipelago or East Indies (now Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens for sale and to study natural history.
It was praised by scientists such as Darwin (to whom the book was dedicated), and Charles Lyell, and by non-scientists such as the novelist Joseph Conrad, who called it his "favorite bedside companion" and used it as source of information for several of his novels, especially Lord Jim. ===Return to England, marriage and children=== In 1862, Wallace returned to England, where he moved in with his sister Fanny Sims and her husband Thomas.
Shipping schedules show that, contrary to these accusations, Wallace's letter could not have been delivered earlier than the date shown in Darwin's letter to Lyell. ====Defence of Darwin and his ideas==== After Wallace returned to England in 1862, he became one of the staunchest defenders of Darwin's On the Origin of Species.
In one incident in 1863 that particularly pleased Darwin, Wallace published the short paper "Remarks on the Rev.
In 1865, he began investigating spiritualism. After a year of courtship, Wallace became engaged in 1864 to a young woman whom, in his autobiography, he would only identify as Miss L.
It continues to be a topic of research in evolutionary biology today, with both computer simulation and empirical results supporting its validity. ===Application of theory to humans, and role of teleology in evolution=== In 1864, Wallace published a paper, "The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection'", applying the theory to humankind.
In 1865, he began investigating spiritualism. After a year of courtship, Wallace became engaged in 1864 to a young woman whom, in his autobiography, he would only identify as Miss L.
In 1866, Wallace married Annie Mitten.
Haughton's Paper on the Bee's Cell, And on the Origin of Species" to rebut a paper by a professor of geology at the University of Dublin that had sharply criticised Darwin's comments in the Origin on how hexagonal honey bee cells could have evolved through natural selection. An even longer defence was a 1867 article in the Quarterly Journal of Science called "Creation by Law".
It was also a lifelong disagreement with Darwin about the importance of sexual selection. In 1867, Darwin wrote to Wallace about a problem in explaining how some caterpillars could have evolved conspicuous colour schemes.
Wallace had suggested to Darwin that natural selection could play a role in preventing hybridisation in private correspondence as early as 1868, but had not worked it out to this level of detail.
Since its publication in 1869, it has never been out of print. Wallace had financial difficulties throughout much of his life.
In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's own theory, in the same year. Accounts of his studies and adventures there were eventually published in 1869 as The Malay Archipelago, which became one of the most popular books of scientific exploration of the 19th century, and has never been out of print.
In 1869, Weir published data from experiments and observations involving brightly coloured caterpillars that supported Wallace's idea. Wallace attributed less importance than Darwin to sexual selection.
The Wallaces had three children: Herbert (1867–1874), Violet (1869–1945), and William (1871–1951). ===Financial struggles=== In the late 1860s and 1870s, Wallace was very concerned about the financial security of his family.
In 1872, Wallace built the Dell, a house of concrete, on land he leased in Grays in Essex, where he lived until 1876.
To remain financially solvent, Wallace worked grading government examinations, wrote 25 papers for publication between 1872 and 1876 for various modest sums, and was paid by Lyell and Darwin to help edit some of their own works. In 1876, Wallace needed a £500 advance from the publisher of The Geographical Distribution of Animals to avoid having to sell some of his personal property.
Of all Wallace's books, it is the most cited by scholarly publications. ==Other scientific contributions== ===Biogeography and ecology=== In 1872, at the urging of many of his friends, including Darwin, Philip Sclater, and Alfred Newton, Wallace began research for a general review of the geographic distribution of animals.
He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society 1873. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Alfred Russel Wallace was born on 8 January 1823 in Llanbadoc, Monmouthshire.
Mill asked him to join the general committee of his Land Tenure Reform Association, but the association dissolved after Mill's death in 1873.
Wallace had written only a handful of articles on political and social issues between 1873 and 1879 when, at the age of 56, he entered the debates over trade policy and land reform in earnest.
He resumed the work in earnest in 1874 after the publication of a number of new works on classification.
In 1872, Wallace built the Dell, a house of concrete, on land he leased in Grays in Essex, where he lived until 1876.
To remain financially solvent, Wallace worked grading government examinations, wrote 25 papers for publication between 1872 and 1876 for various modest sums, and was paid by Lyell and Darwin to help edit some of their own works. In 1876, Wallace needed a £500 advance from the publisher of The Geographical Distribution of Animals to avoid having to sell some of his personal property.
The resulting two-volume work, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, was published in 1876 and served as the definitive text on zoogeography for the next 80 years. The book included evidence from the fossil record to discuss the processes of evolution and migration that had led to the geographical distribution of modern species.
In his 1878 book Tropical Nature and Other Essays, he wrote extensively about the coloration of animals and plants and proposed alternative explanations for a number of cases Darwin had attributed to sexual selection.
Wallace had written only a handful of articles on political and social issues between 1873 and 1879 when, at the age of 56, he entered the debates over trade policy and land reform in earnest.
In 1880, he published Island Life as a sequel to The Geographic Distribution of Animals.
By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles, but natural selection less so.
He added that he believed the most likely cause for the rapid extinctions was glaciation, but by the time he wrote World of Life (1911) he had come to believe those extinctions were "due to man's agency". In 1880, Wallace published the book Island Life as a sequel to The Geographical Distribution of Animals.
Unlike some of his contemporaries in the British scientific community, such as Darwin and Charles Lyell, he had no family wealth to fall back on, and he was unsuccessful in finding a long-term salaried position, receiving no regular income until he was awarded a small government pension, through Darwin's efforts, in 1881.
When the £200 annual pension was awarded in 1881, it helped to stabilise Wallace's financial position by supplementing the income from his writings. ===Social activism=== John Stuart Mill was impressed by remarks criticising English society that Wallace had included in The Malay Archipelago.
He believed that rural land should be owned by the state and leased to people who would make whatever use of it that would benefit the largest number of people, thus breaking the often-abused power of wealthy landowners in British society. In 1881, Wallace was elected as the first president of the newly formed Land Nationalisation Society.
In November 1886, Wallace began a ten-month trip to the United States to give a series of popular lectures.
he does not say he wishes me to publish, but I shall, of course, at once write and offer to send to any journal." Darwin, Francis, 1887, The life and letters of Charles Darwin p.
In 1889, Wallace read Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy and declared himself a socialist, despite his earlier foray as a speculative investor.
His 1889 book Darwinism used information he collected on his American trip and information he had compiled for the lectures. ===Death=== On 7 November 1913, Wallace died at home in the country house he called Old Orchard, which he had built a decade earlier.
He revisited the topic at length in his 1889 book Darwinism.
In 1890, he wrote a critical review in Nature of his friend Edward Bagnall Poulton's The Colours of Animals which supported Darwin on sexual selection, attacking especially Poulton's claims on the "aesthetic preferences of the insect world". ====Wallace effect==== In 1889, Wallace wrote the book Darwinism, which explained and defended natural selection.
In 1889, Wallace published the book Darwinism as a response to the scientific critics of natural selection.
In 1890, he wrote a critical review in Nature of his friend Edward Bagnall Poulton's The Colours of Animals which supported Darwin on sexual selection, attacking especially Poulton's claims on the "aesthetic preferences of the insect world". ====Wallace effect==== In 1889, Wallace wrote the book Darwinism, which explained and defended natural selection.
He also spent a week in Colorado, with the American botanist Alice Eastwood as his guide, exploring the flora of the Rocky Mountains and gathering evidence that would lead him to a theory on how glaciation might explain certain commonalities between the mountain flora of Europe, Asia and North America, which he published in 1891 in the paper "English and American Flowers".
In an essay published in 1899 Wallace called for popular opinion to be rallied against warfare by showing people: "...that all modern wars are dynastic; that they are caused by the ambition, the interests, the jealousies, and the insatiable greed of power of their rulers, or of the great mercantile and financial classes which have power and influence over their rulers; and that the results of war are never good for the people, who yet bear all its burthens".
Wallace's 1904 book Man's Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets.
In The World of Life (1911) he wrote: ===Astrobiology=== Wallace's 1904 book Man's Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets.
More controversially he maintained that it was unlikely that other stars in the galaxy could have planets with the necessary properties (the existence of other galaxies not having been proved at the time). His treatment of Mars in this book was brief, and in 1907, Wallace returned to the subject with a book Is Mars Habitable? to criticise the claims made by Percival Lowell that there were Martian canals built by intelligent beings.
Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 18237 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator.
His 1889 book Darwinism used information he collected on his American trip and information he had compiled for the lectures. ===Death=== On 7 November 1913, Wallace died at home in the country house he called Old Orchard, which he had built a decade earlier.
The medallion was unveiled on 1 November 1915. ==Theory of evolution== ===Early evolutionary thinking=== Unlike Darwin, Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist already believing in the transmutation of species.
They point to a largely overlooked passage of Wallace's famous 1858 paper: The cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson observed in the 1970s that, although writing it only as an example, Wallace had "probably said the most powerful thing that'd been said in the 19th Century".
Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, and other scholars have continued to explore the connection between natural selection and systems theory. ====Warning coloration and sexual selection==== Warning coloration was one of a number of contributions by Wallace in the area of the evolution of animal coloration and in particular protective coloration.
In the early 1980s, two books, one written by Arnold Brackman and another by John Langdon Brooks, even suggested not only that there had been a conspiracy to rob Wallace of his proper credit, but that Darwin had actually stolen a key idea from Wallace to finish his own theory.
All text is taken from Wikipedia. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License .
Page generated on 2021-08-05