From August 26, 1946, and until the beginning of 1947, Operation Highjump was carried out, the largest military expeditionary force that the United States has sent to Antarctica to the present, consisting of 13 ships, 4700 men and numerous aerial devices.
From August 26, 1946, and until the beginning of 1947, Operation Highjump was carried out, the largest military expeditionary force that the United States has sent to Antarctica to the present, consisting of 13 ships, 4700 men and numerous aerial devices.
This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent a fleet of 8 warships to Antarctica in February 1948. On January 17, 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on Deception Island, leaving a sergeant and a corporal in the Argentine Navy.
Before the rejection, on August 28, 1948, the United States proposed to the claimants some form of internationalization of Antarctica, with the support of the United Kingdom.
In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed a Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to send warships south of the 60th South parallel, which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force.
The interest of the United States to keep the Soviet Union away from Antarctica was frustrated when in 1950, this country informed the claimants that it would not accept any Antarctic agreement in which it was not represented.
In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly. === International Geophysical Year === In 1950 the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year.
Its goals were to train military personnel and test material in conditions of extreme cold for an eventual war in the Antarctic. Some incidents had occurred during World War II, and a new one occurred in Hope Bay on February 1, 1952, when the Argentine military fired warning shots at a group of Britons.
This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent a fleet of 8 warships to Antarctica in February 1948. On January 17, 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on Deception Island, leaving a sergeant and a corporal in the Argentine Navy.
A British detachment remained three months on the island while the frigate patrolled its waters until April. On May 4, 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits, against Argentina and Chile respectively, before the International Court of Justice to declare the invalidity of the claims of the sovereignty of the two countries over Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas.
In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly. === International Geophysical Year === In 1950 the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year.
The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58.
At the suggestion of the World Meteorological Organization, the idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the International Geophysical Year that took place between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958.
At the ICSU meeting in Stockholm from September 9 to 11, 1957, the creation of a Special Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) was approved, inviting the twelve countries conducting Antarctic investigations to send delegates to integrate the committee, with the purpose of exchanging scientific information among its members regarding Antarctica.
In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly. === International Geophysical Year === In 1950 the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year.
At the suggestion of the World Meteorological Organization, the idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the International Geophysical Year that took place between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958.
After the United States proposed to extend the Antarctic investigations for another year, in February 1958, the Soviet Union reported that it would maintain its scientific bases until the studies that were carried out were completed. === Negotiation of the treaty === Scientific bases increased in international tension concerning Antarctica, and the danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent, caused the President of the United States, Dwight D.
In the first phase, representatives of the twelve nations met in Washington, who met in 60 sessions from June 1958 to October 1959, to define the basic negotiating framework.
Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat headquarters has been located in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The main treaty was opened for signature on December 1, 1959, and officially entered into force on June 23, 1961.
In the first phase, representatives of the twelve nations met in Washington, who met in 60 sessions from June 1958 to October 1959, to define the basic negotiating framework.
In the second phase, a conference of the highest diplomatic level was held from October 15 to December 1, 1959, the date of the signing of the treaty.
Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960, the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981. === United States === The law of the United States, including certain criminal offences by or against U.S.
The treaty entered into force in 1961 and currently has 54 parties.
Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat headquarters has been located in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The main treaty was opened for signature on December 1, 1959, and officially entered into force on June 23, 1961.
In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed a Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to send warships south of the 60th South parallel, which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force.
Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960, the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981. === United States === The law of the United States, including certain criminal offences by or against U.S.
Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960, the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981. === United States === The law of the United States, including certain criminal offences by or against U.S.
Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation. === New Zealand === In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at the South Pole base in May 2000.
Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat headquarters has been located in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The main treaty was opened for signature on December 1, 1959, and officially entered into force on June 23, 1961.
40 parties to the Antarctic Treaty have also ratified the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty". Has an overlapping claim with another one or two claimants. † Reserved the right to make a claim. == Antarctic Treaty Secretariat == The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM).
Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation. === New Zealand === In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at the South Pole base in May 2000.
In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress, the Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr.
Jan Huber (the Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until August 31, 2009.
He was succeeded on September 1, 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany).
Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined, was considered to be unclaimed.
The Antarctic Treaty also has Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (SATCM), which are generally summoned to treat more important topics but are less frequents and Meetings of Experts. == Parties == As of 2019, there are 54 states party to the treaty, 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status.
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