DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by the Austrian chemist Othmar Zeidler.
(The same enzyme family is up-regulated in mammals too, e.g., in response to ethanol consumption.) Genomic studies in the model genetic organism Drosophila melanogaster revealed that high level DDT resistance is polygenic, involving multiple resistance mechanisms. ==History== DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler under the supervision of Adolf von Baeyer.
It was further described in 1929 in a dissertation by W.
Bausch and in two subsequent publications in 1930.
The insecticide properties of "multiple chlorinated aliphatic or fat-aromatic alcohols with at least one trichloromethane group" were described in a patent in 1934 by Wolfgang von Leuthold.
DDT's insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939.
DDT's insecticidal properties were not, however, discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. ===Use in the 1940s and 1950s=== DDT is the best-known of several chlorine-containing pesticides used in the 1940s and 1950s.
DDT's insecticidal properties were not, however, discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. ===Use in the 1940s and 1950s=== DDT is the best-known of several chlorine-containing pesticides used in the 1940s and 1950s.
Calvery expressed concern over possible hazards associated with DDT as early as 1944.
Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods". By October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States.
Efforts shifted from spraying to the use of bednets impregnated with insecticides and other interventions. ===United States ban=== By October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States, used both as an agricultural pesticide and as a household insecticide.
Citing research performed by Michigan State University in 1946, Robinson, a past president of the local Conservation Club, opined that: ...
Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods". By October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States.
DDT's insecticidal properties were not, however, discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. ===Use in the 1940s and 1950s=== DDT is the best-known of several chlorine-containing pesticides used in the 1940s and 1950s.
DDT's insecticidal properties were not, however, discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. ===Use in the 1940s and 1950s=== DDT is the best-known of several chlorine-containing pesticides used in the 1940s and 1950s.
In the 1950s the federal government began tightening regulations governing its use.
Women like Dorothy Colson and Mamie Ella Plyler of Claxton, Georgia gathered evidence about DDT's effects and wrote to the Georgia Department of Public Health, the National Health Council in New York City, and other organizations. In 1957 The New York Times reported an unsuccessful struggle to restrict DDT use in Nassau County, New York, and the issue came to the attention of the popular naturalist-author Rachel Carson.
Usage peaked in 1959 at about 36,000 tonnes. In 2009, 3,314 tonnes were produced for malaria control and visceral leishmaniasis.
Opposition to DDT was focused by the 1962 publication of Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring.
William Shawn, editor of The New Yorker, urged her to write a piece on the subject, which developed into her 1962 book Silent Spring.
Production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year.
military removed DDT from the military supply system due in part to the development of resistance by body lice to DDT; it was replaced by lindane. DDT became a prime target of the growing anti-chemical and anti-pesticide movements, and in 1967 a group of scientists and lawyers founded the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) with the specific goal of enacting a ban on DDT.
DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported. ===International usage restrictions=== In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries, beginning with Hungary in 1968, followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984.
Eradication was abandoned in 1969 and attention instead focused on controlling and treating the disease.
During the late 1970s, the EPA also began banning organochlorines, pesticides that were chemically similar to DDT.
DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported. ===International usage restrictions=== In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries, beginning with Hungary in 1968, followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984.
By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control.
District Court of Appeals in 1971 ordered the EPA to begin the de-registration procedure for DDT.
The decision thus created controversy. The EPA held seven months of hearings in 1971–1972, with scientists giving evidence for and against DDT.
Although Carson never directly called for an outright ban on the use of DDT, its publication was a seminal event for the environmental movement and resulted in a large public outcry that eventually led, in 1972, to a ban on DDT's agricultural use in the United States. A worldwide ban on agricultural use was formalized under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants which has been in effect since 2004.
More than 600,000 tonnes (1.35 billion pounds) were applied in the US before the 1972 ban.
In the summer of 1972, Ruckelshaus announced the cancellation of most uses of DDT – exempting public health uses under some conditions.
DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported. ===International usage restrictions=== In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries, beginning with Hungary in 1968, followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984.
The cases were consolidated, and in 1973 the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the EPA had acted properly in banning DDT.
For example, in June 1979, the California Department of Health Services was permitted to use DDT to suppress flea vectors of bubonic plague.
DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported. ===International usage restrictions=== In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries, beginning with Hungary in 1968, followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984.
By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control.
DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported. ===International usage restrictions=== In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries, beginning with Hungary in 1968, followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984.
By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control.
DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported. ===International usage restrictions=== In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries, beginning with Hungary in 1968, followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984.
By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control.
By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control.
By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control.
Although Carson never directly called for an outright ban on the use of DDT, its publication was a seminal event for the environmental movement and resulted in a large public outcry that eventually led, in 1972, to a ban on DDT's agricultural use in the United States. A worldwide ban on agricultural use was formalized under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants which has been in effect since 2004.
By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control.
China ceased production in 2007. ===Mechanism of insecticide action=== In insects, DDT opens sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire spontaneously, which leads to spasms and eventual death.
Usage peaked in 1959 at about 36,000 tonnes. In 2009, 3,314 tonnes were produced for malaria control and visceral leishmaniasis.
As of 2013, an estimated 3,000 to 4,000 tons of DDT were produced for disease vector control, including 2786 tons in India.
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