These design features are the reason that the Enigma machine was originally referred to as the rotor-based cipher machine during its intellectual inception in 1915. === Electrical pathway === An electrical pathway is a route for current to travel.
The German firm Scherbius & Ritter, co-founded by Arthur Scherbius, patented ideas for a cipher machine in 1918 and began marketing the finished product under the brand name Enigma in 1923, initially targeted at commercial markets.
After the end of World War II, the Allies sold captured Enigma machines, still widely considered secure, to developing countries. === Commercial Enigma === On 23 February 1918, Arthur Scherbius applied for a patent for a ciphering machine that used rotors.
Early models were used commercially from the early 1920s, and adopted by military and government services of several countries, most notably Nazi Germany before and during World War II. Several different Enigma models were produced, but the German military models, having a plugboard, were the most complex.
The earliest were commercial models dating from the early 1920s.
The German firm Scherbius & Ritter, co-founded by Arthur Scherbius, patented ideas for a cipher machine in 1918 and began marketing the finished product under the brand name Enigma in 1923, initially targeted at commercial markets.
Scherbius & Ritter then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on 9 July 1923; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors. ==== Enigma A (1923) ==== Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine, Enigma model A, which was exhibited at the Congress of the International Postal Union in 1924.
Scherbius & Ritter then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on 9 July 1923; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors. ==== Enigma A (1923) ==== Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine, Enigma model A, which was exhibited at the Congress of the International Postal Union in 1924.
It measured 65×45×38 cm and weighed about . ==== Enigma B (1924) ==== In 1924 Enigma model B was introduced, and was of a similar construction.
This version, named Funkschlüssel C ("Radio cipher C"), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926. The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters — A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü — that were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZUI ordering.
With its adoption (in slightly modified form) by the German Navy in 1926 and the German Army and Air Force soon after, the name Enigma became widely known in military circles.
This version, named Funkschlüssel C ("Radio cipher C"), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926. The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters — A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü — that were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZUI ordering.
In 1927 Hugh Foss at the British Government Code and Cypher School was able to show that commercial Enigma machines could be broken, provided suitable cribs were available.
The machine was revised slightly in July 1933. ==== Enigma G (1928–1930) ==== By 15 July 1928, the German Army (Reichswehr) had introduced their own exclusive version of the Enigma machine, the Enigma G. The Abwehr used the Enigma G (the Abwehr Enigma).
It was introduced on German Army versions in 1930, and was soon adopted by the Reichsmarine (German Navy).
This model was equipped with a counter that incremented upon each key press, and so is also known as the "counter machine" or the Zählwerk Enigma. ==== Wehrmacht Enigma I (1930–1938) ==== Enigma machine G was modified to the Enigma I by June 1930.
The machine measured and weighed around . In August 1935, the Air Force introduced the Wehrmacht Enigma for their communications. ==== M3 (1934) ==== By 1930, the Reichswehr had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing the benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications.
Compact and easily portable, the Enigma machine filled that need. === Breaking Enigma === Around December 1932, Marian Rejewski, a Polish mathematician and cryptanalyst, while working at the Polish Cipher Bureau, used the theory of permutations and flaws in the German military message encipherment procedures to break the message keys of the plugboard Enigma machine.
The French spy Hans-Thilo Schmidt obtained access to German cipher materials that included the daily keys used in September and October 1932.
These security flaws enabled the Polish Cipher Bureau to break into the pre-war Enigma system as early as 1932.
The Polish Cipher Bureau developed techniques to defeat the plugboard and find all components of the daily key, which enabled the Cipher Bureau to read German Enigma messages starting from January 1933.
In 1933 the Polish Cipher Bureau detected that it was in use for high-level military communication, but it was soon withdrawn, as it was unreliable and jammed frequently. ==== Enigma K ==== The Swiss used a version of Enigma called Model K or Swiss K for military and diplomatic use, which was very similar to commercial Enigma D.
The machine was revised slightly in July 1933. ==== Enigma G (1928–1930) ==== By 15 July 1928, the German Army (Reichswehr) had introduced their own exclusive version of the Enigma machine, the Enigma G. The Abwehr used the Enigma G (the Abwehr Enigma).
The Reichsmarine eventually agreed and in 1934 brought into service the Navy version of the Army Enigma, designated Funkschlüssel ' or M3.
The machine measured and weighed around . In August 1935, the Air Force introduced the Wehrmacht Enigma for their communications. ==== M3 (1934) ==== By 1930, the Reichswehr had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing the benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications.
The machine is fully restored and CMoA has the original paperwork for the purchase on 7 March 1936 by the German Army.
The original version was marked 'A', and was replaced by Umkehrwalze B on 1 November 1937.
These four-rotor commercial machines had helped Franco's Nationalists win the Spanish Civil War, because, though the British cryptologist Alfred Dilwyn Knox in 1937 broke the cipher generated by Franco's Enigma machines, this was not disclosed to the Republicans, who failed to break the cipher.
In 1938, the Germans added complexity to the Enigma machines, leading to a situation that became too expensive for the Poles to counter.
On 15 December 1938, this changed to five, from which three were chosen for a given session.
While the Army used only three rotors at that time, the Navy specified a choice of three from a possible five. ==== Two extra rotors (1938) ==== In December 1938, the Army issued two extra rotors so that the three rotors were chosen from a set of five.
In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight. ==== M4 (1942) ==== A four-rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on 1 February 1942, called M4 (the network was known as Triton, or Shark to the Allies).
“There was no exact pattern in it which made it especially difficult to break." On 26 and 27 July 1939, in Pyry near Warsaw, the Poles initiated French and British military intelligence representatives into their Enigma-decryption techniques and equipment, including Zygalski sheets and the cryptologic bomb, and promised each delegation a Polish-reconstructed Enigma.
The demonstration represented a vital basis for the later British continuation and effort. In September 1939, British Military Mission 4, which included Colin Gubbins and Vera Atkins, went to Poland to evacuate code-breakers Gwido Langer, Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski from the country with their replica Enigma machines.
In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight. ==== M4 (1942) ==== A four-rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on 1 February 1942, called M4 (the network was known as Triton, or Shark to the Allies).
A third version, Umkehrwalze C was used briefly in 1940, possibly by mistake, and was solved by Hut 6.
The Jozef Pilsudski Institute in London exhibits a rare Polish Enigma double assembled in France in 1940. In the United States, Enigma machines can be seen at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, and at the National Security Agency's National Cryptologic Museum in Fort Meade, Maryland, where visitors can try their hand at enciphering and deciphering messages.
In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight. ==== M4 (1942) ==== A four-rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on 1 February 1942, called M4 (the network was known as Triton, or Shark to the Allies).
The fourth version, first observed on 2 January 1944, had a rewireable reflector, called Umkehrwalze D, nick-named Uncle Dick by the British, allowing the Enigma operator to alter the connections as part of the key settings. === Plugboard === The plugboard (Steckerbrett in German) permitted variable wiring that could be reconfigured by the operator (visible on the front panel of Figure 1; some of the patch cords can be seen in the lid).
The remote panel made it possible for a person to read the decrypted plaintext without the operator seeing it. ==== Uhr ==== In 1944, the Luftwaffe introduced a plugboard switch, called the Uhr (clock), a small box containing a switch with 40 positions.
The Nationalist government continued using its 50 Enigmas into the 1950s.
The extra rotor was fitted in the same space by splitting the reflector into a combination of a thin reflector and a thin fourth rotor. == Surviving machines == The effort to break the Enigma was not disclosed until the 1970s.
How Polish Mathematicians Deciphered the Enigma", Annals of the History of Computing 3, 1981.
Replicas are available in various forms, including an exact reconstructed copy of the Naval M4 model, an Enigma implemented in electronics (Enigma-E), various simulators and paper-and-scissors analogues. A rare Abwehr Enigma machine, designated G312, was stolen from the Bletchley Park museum on 1 April 2000.
In early October 2000, Bletchley Park officials announced that they would pay the ransom, but the stated deadline passed with no word from the blackmailer.
Shortly afterward, the machine was sent anonymously to BBC journalist Jeremy Paxman, missing three rotors. In November 2000, an antiques dealer named Dennis Yates was arrested after telephoning The Sunday Times to arrange the return of the missing parts.
This article is regarded by Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing's biographer, as "the definitive account" (see Hodges' The Enigma, Walker and Company, 2000 paperback edition, p. 548, footnote 4.5). Ulbricht, Heinz.
In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to ten months in prison and served three months. In October 2008, the Spanish daily newspaper El País reported that 28 Enigma machines had been discovered by chance in an attic of Army headquarters in Madrid.
"Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part I", Cryptologia 25(2), April 2001, pp. 101–141. Marks, Philip.
"Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part II", Cryptologia 25(3), July 2001, pp. 177–212. Marks, Philip.
"Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part III", Cryptologia 25(4), October 2001, pp. 296–310. Perera, Tom.
In the United States, cryptologist William Friedman designed the M-325, a machine logically similar, although not in construction. A unique rotor machine was constructed in 2002 by Netherlands-based Tatjana van Vark.
This was unknown until 2003 when a paper by Karl de Leeuw was found that described in detail Arthur Scherbius' changes.
The Story of the ENIGMA: History, Technology and Deciphering, 2nd Edition, CD-ROM, 2004, Artifax Books, sample pages Rebecca Ratcliffe: Searching for Security.
In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to ten months in prison and served three months. In October 2008, the Spanish daily newspaper El País reported that 28 Enigma machines had been discovered by chance in an attic of Army headquarters in Madrid.
https://rusi.org/commentary/poland-decisive-role-cracking-enigma-and-transforming-uk-sigint-operations == Further reading == Heath, Nick, Hacking the Nazis: The secret story of the women who broke Hitler's codes TechRepublic, 27 March 2015 Marks, Philip.
A four-rotor Enigma machine is on display at the Military Communications and Electronics Museum at Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Kingston in Kingston, Ontario. Occasionally, Enigma machines are sold at auction; prices have in recent years ranged from US$40,000 to US$547,500 in 2017.
Two have been given to Britain's GCHQ. The Bulgarian military used Enigma machines with a Cyrillic keyboard; one is on display in the National Museum of Military History in Sofia. On 3 December 2020, German divers working on behalf of the World Wide Fund for Nature discovered a destroyed Enigma machine in Flensburg Firth (part of the Baltic Sea) which is believed to be from a scuttled U-Boat.
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