Harrison Gray Otis, 1765–1848: The Urbane Federalist. Detailed political history of 1790s. Siemers, David J.
The British agreed to evacuate the western forts, open their West Indies ports to American ships, allow small vessels to trade with the French West Indies and set up a commission that would adjudicate American claims against Britain for seized ships and British claims against Americans for debts incurred before 1775.
Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775–2000.
Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809. Chernow, Ron (2010).
Therefore, they denounced the Jay Treaty as an insult to American prestige, a repudiation of the American-French alliance of 1777 and a severe shock to Southern planters who owed those old debts and who would now be never compensated for their escaped slaves who fled to British lines for their freedom.
The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788-1800.
Under Alexander Hamilton, it dominated the national government from 1789 to 1801.
The Federalist Party came into being between 1789 and 1790 as a national coalition of bankers and businessmen in support of Hamilton's fiscal policies.
After losing executive power, they decisively shaped Supreme Court policy for another three decades through Chief Justice John Marshall. == Rise == On taking office in 1789, President Washington nominated his wartime chief of staff Alexander Hamilton to the new office of Secretary of the Treasury.
No similar parties existed anywhere in the world. By 1789, Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition.
The Federalist Party came into being between 1789 and 1790 as a national coalition of bankers and businessmen in support of Hamilton's fiscal policies.
The Jay Treaty passed and the Federalists won most of the major legislative battles in the 1790s.
These men would form the Republican Party under Thomas Jefferson. By the early 1790s, newspapers started calling Hamilton supporters "Federalists" and their opponents "Democrats", "Republicans", "Jeffersonians", or—much later—"Democratic-Republicans".
Covering the 1790s. Jensen, Richard (2000).
Harrison Gray Otis, 1765–1848: The Urbane Federalist. Detailed political history of 1790s. Siemers, David J.
"The Nationalization and Racialization of American Politics: 1790–1840" in Shafer, Boyd; Badger, Anthony (eds.) (2001).
However, the Republicans did not give up and public opinion swung toward the Republicans after the Treaty fight and in the South the Federalists lost most of the support they had among planters. == Whiskey Rebellion == The excise tax of 1791 caused grumbling from the frontier including threats of tax resistance.
He was re-elected without opposition in 1792.
In early 1793, Jefferson secretly prepared resolutions introduced by William Branch Giles, Congressman from Virginia, designed to repudiate Hamilton and weaken the Washington Administration.
Jefferson told the Baptists of Connecticut there should be a "wall of separation" between church and state. == Effects of foreign affairs == International affairs—the French Revolution and the subsequent war between royalist Britain and republican France—decisively shaped American politics in 1793–1800 and threatened to entangle the nation in wars that "mortally threatened its very existence".
The French revolutionaries guillotined King Louis XVI in January 1793, leading the British to declare war to restore the monarchy.
The level of rhetoric reached a fever pitch. In 1793, Paris sent a new minister, Edmond-Charles Genêt (known as Citizen Genêt), who systematically mobilized pro-French sentiment and encouraged Americans to support France's war against Britain and Spain.
George Washington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, but he remained officially non-partisan during his entire presidency. Federalist policies called for a national bank, tariffs and good relations with Great Britain as expressed in the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794.
Catholics in Maryland were generally Federalists. The state networks of both parties began to operate in 1794 or 1795.
Jefferson left office, ending the coalition cabinet and allowing the Federalists to dominate. === Jay Treaty === The Jay Treaty battle in 1794–1795 was the effort by Washington, Hamilton and John Jay to resolve numerous difficulties with Britain.
The rebellion evaporated in late 1794 as Washington approached, personally leading the army (only two sitting Presidents have directly led American military forces, Washington during the Whiskey Rebellion and Madison in an attempt to save the White House during the War of 1812).
Catholics in Maryland were generally Federalists. The state networks of both parties began to operate in 1794 or 1795.
The Federalists controlled the Senate and they ratified it by exactly the necessary ⅔ vote (20–10) in 1795.
The election of 1796 was the first partisan affair in the nation's history and one of the more scurrilous in terms of newspaper attacks.
They elected Adams as president in 1796, when they controlled both houses of Congress, the presidency, eight state legislatures and ten governorships. Foreign affairs continued to be the central concern of American politics, for the war raging in Europe threatened to drag in the United States.
Their majorities in Congress were long gone, dropping in the Senate from 23 in 1796, and 21 in 1800 to only six in 1804.
After the collapse of the Federalists starting in 1815, the Fourth of July became a nonpartisan holiday. == Adams administration: 1797–1801 == Hamilton distrusted Vice President Adams—who felt the same way about Hamilton—but was unable to block his claims to the succession.
An undeclared "Quasi-War" with France from 1798 to 1800 saw each side attacking and capturing the other's shipping.
To silence Administration critics, the Federalists passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798.
In the elections of 1798, the Federalists did very well, but this issue started hurting the Federalists in 1799.
In foreign affairs, the Federalists opposed the French Revolution, engaged in the "Quasi War" (an undeclared naval war) with France in 1798–99, sought good relations with Britain and sought a strong army and navy.
In the elections of 1798, the Federalists did very well, but this issue started hurting the Federalists in 1799.
Early in 1799, Adams decided to free himself from Hamilton's overbearing influence, stunning the country and throwing his party into disarray by announcing a new peace mission to France.
After the Jeffersonians, whose base was in the rural South and West, won the hard-fought presidential election of 1800, the Federalists never returned to power.
In 1800 and other elections, the Federalists targeted infidelity in any form.
By 1800, the Fourth of July was closely identified with the Federalist Party.
An undeclared "Quasi-War" with France from 1798 to 1800 saw each side attacking and capturing the other's shipping.
Inadvertently, this split the Federalists and helped give the victory to Jefferson. == Election of 1800 == Adams's peace moves proved popular with the Federalist rank and file and he seemed to stand a good chance of re-election in 1800.
Their majorities in Congress were long gone, dropping in the Senate from 23 in 1796, and 21 in 1800 to only six in 1804.
In New England and in some districts in the middle states, the Federalists clung to power, but the tendency from 1800 to 1812 was steady slippage almost everywhere as the Republicans perfected their organization and the Federalists tried to play catch-up.
In the South, the party had lingering support in Maryland, but elsewhere was crippled by 1800 and faded away by 1808. Massachusetts and Connecticut remained the party strongholds.
This was the Federalist machine. After 1800, the major Federalist role came in the judiciary.
How four Republican and four Federalist newspapers covered the election of 1800; Thomas Paine; Louisiana Purchase; Hamilton-Burr duel; impeachment of Chase; and the embargo. Lampi, Philip J.
Under Alexander Hamilton, it dominated the national government from 1789 to 1801.
It controlled the federal government until 1801, when it was overwhelmed by the Democratic-Republican opposition led by President Thomas Jefferson.
Hamilton had many lucrative Treasury jobs to dispense—there were 1,700 of them by 1801.
Thus the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another. Washington never considered himself a member of any party, but broadly supported most Federalist policies. == Newspaper editors at war == The spoils system helped finance Federalist printers until 1801 and Republican editors after that.
Hamilton subsidized the Federalist editors, wrote for their papers and in 1801 established his own paper, the New York Evening Post.
Although Jefferson managed to repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801 and thus dismissed many lower level Federalist federal judges, the effort to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 failed.
Led by the last great Federalist, John Marshall as Chief Justice from 1801 to 1835, the Supreme Court carved out a unique and powerful role as the protector of the Constitution and promoter of nationalism. === Anti-war party === As the wars in Europe intensified, the United States became increasingly involved.
This opposition by Hamilton would lead to his fatal duel with Burr in July 1804. The thoroughly disorganized Federalists hardly offered any opposition to Jefferson's reelection in 1804 and Federalists seemed doomed.
After again losing the presidency in 1804, the party was now down to three legislatures and five governorships (four in New England).
Their majorities in Congress were long gone, dropping in the Senate from 23 in 1796, and 21 in 1800 to only six in 1804.
Although Jefferson managed to repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801 and thus dismissed many lower level Federalist federal judges, the effort to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 failed.
Meeting in the first-ever national convention, Federalists considered the option of nominating Jefferson's Vice President George Clinton as their own candidate, but balked at working with him and again chose Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, their 1804 candidate.
The Federalists restored some of their strength by leading the anti-war opposition to Jefferson and Madison between 1807 and 1814.
President Jefferson imposed an embargo on Britain in 1807 as the Embargo Act of 1807 prevented all American ships from sailing to a foreign port.
For economic and philosophical reasons, the Federalists tended to be pro-British—the United States engaged in more trade with Great Britain than with any other country—and vociferously opposed Jefferson's Embargo Act of 1807 and the seemingly deliberate provocation of war with Britain by the Madison Administration.
In the South, the party had lingering support in Maryland, but elsewhere was crippled by 1800 and faded away by 1808. Massachusetts and Connecticut remained the party strongholds.
Public opinion was highly negative and a surge of support breathed fresh life into the Federalist Party. The Republicans nominated Madison for the presidency in 1808.
The Tammany Society in New York City highly favored Madison and the Federalists finally adopted the club idea in 1808.
"The Federalist Party Resurgence, 1808–1816: Evidence from the New Nation Votes Database".
It became a minority party while keeping its stronghold in New England and made a brief resurgence by opposing the War of 1812.
They recovered some strength through their intense opposition to the War of 1812, but they practically vanished during the Era of Good Feelings that followed the end of the war in 1815. The Federalists left a lasting legacy in the form of a strong federal government.
The rebellion evaporated in late 1794 as Washington approached, personally leading the army (only two sitting Presidents have directly led American military forces, Washington during the Whiskey Rebellion and Madison in an attempt to save the White House during the War of 1812).
In New England and in some districts in the middle states, the Federalists clung to power, but the tendency from 1800 to 1812 was steady slippage almost everywhere as the Republicans perfected their organization and the Federalists tried to play catch-up.
Tricked by Napoleon into believing France had acceded to his demands, Madison turned his wrath on Britain and the War of 1812 began.
Young Daniel Webster, running for Congress from New Hampshire in 1812, first gained overnight fame with his anti-war speeches. === Madison administration === The nation was at war during the 1812 presidential election and war was the burning issue.
Opposition to the war was strong in traditional Federalist strongholds in New England and New York, where the party made a comeback in the elections of 1812 and 1814.
In their second national convention in 1812, the Federalists, now the peace party, nominated DeWitt Clinton, the dissident Republican Mayor of New York City and an articulate opponent of the war.
However, the Federalists gained 14 seats in Congress. == Opposition to the War of 1812 == The War of 1812 went poorly for the Americans for two years.
Calhoun and Clay had in effect adopted Federalist principles of implied powers to purchase the Louisiana Territory and after the failures and lessons of the War of 1812 raised tariffs to protect factories, chartered the Second National Bank, promoted a strong army and navy and promoted internal improvements.
"Federalist Party Unity and the War of 1812".
The Federalists restored some of their strength by leading the anti-war opposition to Jefferson and Madison between 1807 and 1814.
Opposition to the war was strong in traditional Federalist strongholds in New England and New York, where the party made a comeback in the elections of 1812 and 1814.
in 1814 and sent a force to capture New Orleans. The war was especially unpopular in New England.
In 1814, the British Navy finally managed to enforce their blockade on the New England coast, so the Federalists of New England sent delegates to the Hartford Convention in December 1814. During the proceedings of the Hartford Convention, secession from the Union was discussed, though the resulting report listed a set of grievances against the Democratic-Republican federal government and proposed a set of Constitutional amendments to address these grievances.
They recovered some strength through their intense opposition to the War of 1812, but they practically vanished during the Era of Good Feelings that followed the end of the war in 1815. The Federalists left a lasting legacy in the form of a strong federal government.
After the collapse of the Federalists starting in 1815, the Fourth of July became a nonpartisan holiday. == Adams administration: 1797–1801 == Hamilton distrusted Vice President Adams—who felt the same way about Hamilton—but was unable to block his claims to the succession.
It then collapsed with its last presidential candidate in 1816.
Pamphlets, songs, newspaper editorials, speeches and entire plays on the Battle of New Orleans drove home the point. The Federalists fielded their last presidential candidate (Rufus King) in 1816.
The membership was aging rapidly, but a few young men from New England did join the cause, most notably Daniel Webster. After 1816, the Federalists had no national power base apart from John Marshall's Supreme Court.
After the dissolution of the final Federalist congressional caucus in 1825, the last traces of Federalist activity came in Delaware and Massachusetts local politics in the late 1820s.
Just as importantly, American politics by the 1820s accepted the two-party system whereby rival parties stake their claims before the electorate and the winner takes control of majority in state legislatures and the Congress and gains governorships and the presidency. As time went on, the Federalists lost appeal with the average voter and were generally not equal to the tasks of party organization; hence they grew steadily weaker as the political triumphs of the Republican Party grew.
After the collapse of the Federalist Party in the course of the 1824 presidential election, most surviving Federalists (including Daniel Webster) joined former Republicans like Henry Clay to form the National Republican Party, which was soon combined with other anti-Jackson groups to form the Whig Party in 1833.
After the dissolution of the final Federalist congressional caucus in 1825, the last traces of Federalist activity came in Delaware and Massachusetts local politics in the late 1820s.
The party controlled the Delaware state legislature in 1827.
The party controlled the Massachusetts Senate and Harrison Gray Otis, who was elected Mayor of Boston in 1829, became the last major Federalist office holder. == Interpretations == Intellectually, Federalists were profoundly devoted to liberty.
After the collapse of the Federalist Party in the course of the 1824 presidential election, most surviving Federalists (including Daniel Webster) joined former Republicans like Henry Clay to form the National Republican Party, which was soon combined with other anti-Jackson groups to form the Whig Party in 1833.
Led by the last great Federalist, John Marshall as Chief Justice from 1801 to 1835, the Supreme Court carved out a unique and powerful role as the protector of the Constitution and promoter of nationalism. === Anti-war party === As the wars in Europe intensified, the United States became increasingly involved.
Federalists now ridiculed Republicans as "democrats" (meaning in favor of mob rule) or "Jacobins" (a reference to the Reign of Terror in France). Washington refused to run for a third term, establishing a two-term precedent that was to stand until 1940 and eventually to be enshrined in the Constitution as the 22nd Amendment.
. Viereck, Peter (1956, 2006) Conservative Thinkers from John Adams to Winston Churchill.
Summary online. details the collapse state by state. Mason, Matthew (March 2009).
Ratifying the Republic: Antifederalists and Federalists in Constitutional Time (2002). General survey. Stoltz III, Joseph F., “‘It Taught Our Enemies a Lesson’ The Battle of New Orleans and the Republican Destruction of the Federalist Party,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 71 (Summer 2012), 112–27.
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