The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History (2011), 862 pp; 35 essays by specialists; Germany since 1760 excerpt Smith, Woodruff D.
The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780–1918 (1998) excerpt and text search Blackbourn, David, and Geoff Eley.
In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (If they existed at all; for example, parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code, while in Prussia the Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht of 1794 was still in effect).
A heavily rural collection of states in 1815, the now united Germany became predominantly urban.
Others were created as sovereign states after the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
In the elections of 1874, the Centre party doubled its popular vote, and became the second-largest party in the national parliament—and remained a powerful force for the next 60 years, so that after Bismarck it became difficult to form a government without their support. =====Social reform===== Bismarck built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as in the 1840s.
A History of Modern Germany: 1840–1945 (1969), pp. 173–532 Jefferies, Mattew.
This was a departure from his adventurous foreign policy for Prussia, where he favored strength and expansion, punctuating this by saying, "The great question of the age are not settled by speeches and majority votes – this was the error of 1848–49 – but by iron and blood." Bismarck's chief concern was that France would plot revenge after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.
However, they excited the interest of the religious-minded, who supported an extensive network of missionaries. Germans had dreamed of colonial imperialism since 1848.
Prussian dominance had also been constitutionally established, as the King of Prussia was also the German Emperor. After 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals, and railways.
In many cities, the new railway shops were the centers of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry.
The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914 (1977) pp. 17–70. Mombauer, Annika and Wilhelm Deist, eds.
Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor, 1859–1900 (1989) online edition; vol2: Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941 (1996) online edition Chickering, Roger.
For these reasons Fritz Fischer and his students emphasised Germany's primary guilt for causing the First World War. Hans-Ulrich Wehler, a leader of the Bielefeld School of social history, places the origins of Germany's path to disaster in the 1860s–1870s, when economic modernisation took place, but political modernisation did not happen and the old Prussian rural elite remained in firm control of the army, diplomacy and the civil service.
The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860–1914 (2nd ed.
While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise. In 1871, a common Criminal Code () was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established in the court system (), code of civil procedure () and code of criminal procedure ().
Three wars led to military successes and helped to persuade German people to do this: the Second Schleswig War against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871. The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between the constituent Confederation entities of the Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and Prussia and its allies on the other.
Three wars led to military successes and helped to persuade German people to do this: the Second Schleswig War against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871. The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between the constituent Confederation entities of the Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and Prussia and its allies on the other.
Some of the initially existing states, in particular Hanover, were abolished and annexed by Prussia as a result of the war of 1866. Each component of the German Empire sent representatives to the Federal Council (Bundesrat) and, via single-member districts, the Imperial Diet (Reichstag).
Germany and the great powers, 1866–1914: A study in public opinion and foreign policy (1938); online at Questia also online review; 862pp; written for advanced students. Cecil, Lamar.
The war resulted in the partial replacement of the Confederation in 1867 by a North German Confederation, comprising the 22 states north of the Main River.
Imperial Germany 1867–1918: Politics, Culture, and Society in an Authoritarian State.
Three wars led to military successes and helped to persuade German people to do this: the Second Schleswig War against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871. The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between the constituent Confederation entities of the Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and Prussia and its allies on the other.
The patriotic fervor generated by the Franco-Prussian War overwhelmed the remaining opposition to a unified Germany (aside from Austria) in the four states south of the Main, and during November 1870, they joined the North German Confederation by treaty. ==== Foundation ==== On 10 December 1870, the North German Confederation Reichstag renamed the Confederation the "German Empire" and gave the title of German Emperor to William I, the King of Prussia, as Bundespräsidium of the Confederation.
However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth.
The German textile and metal industries had by 1870 surpassed those of Britain in organisation and technical efficiency and superseded British manufacturers in the domestic market.
In 1870, the Catholics formed their own political party, the Centre Party, which generally supported unification and most of Bismarck's policies.
They saw the Catholic Church as a powerful force of reaction and anti-modernity, especially after the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870, and the tightening control of the Vatican over the local bishops. The Kulturkampf launched by Bismarck 1871–1880 affected Prussia; although there were similar movements in Baden and Hesse, the rest of Germany was not affected.
Verdun had been one of the last cities to hold out against the German Army in 1870, and Falkenhayn predicted that as a matter of national pride the French would do anything to ensure that it was not taken.
From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914 (1927) online free. Carroll, E.
Bismarck and state socialism; an exposition of the social and economic legislation of Germany since 1870 (1890) 175 pages Dawson, William Harbutt.
Jewish Responses to Anti-Semitism in Germany, 1870–1914: A Study in the History of Ideas (ISD, 1980. Retallack, James.
In 1871, Germany had a population of 41 million people; by 1913, this had increased to 68 million.
By 1913, Germany was the largest economy in Continental Europe, surpassing the United Kingdom (excluding its Empire and Dominions), as well as the third-largest in the world, only behind the United States and the British Empire, which were also its main economic rivals. From 1871 to 1890, Otto von Bismarck's tenure as the first and to this day longest-serving Chancellor was marked by relative liberalism, but it became more conservative afterward.
Starting very small in 1871, in a decade, the navy became second only to Britain's Royal Navy.
The new constitution (Constitution of the German Confederation) and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871.
During the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution, adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, was substantially based upon Bismarck's North German Constitution.
However, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas.
By the turn of the century, the urban-rural population balance was completely reversed from 1871; more than two-thirds of the empire's people lived in cities and towns. ===Bismarck era=== Bismarck's domestic policies played an important role in forging the authoritarian political culture of the Kaiserreich.
Less preoccupied with continental power politics following unification in 1871, Germany's semi-parliamentary government carried out a relatively smooth economic and political revolution from above that pushed them along the way towards becoming the world's leading industrial power of the time. Bismarck's "revolutionary conservatism" was a conservative state-building strategy designed to make ordinary Germans—not just the Junker elite—more loyal to the throne and empire.
According to Kees van Kersbergen and Barbara Vis, his strategy was: Bismarck created the modern welfare state in Germany in the 1880s and enacted universal male suffrage in 1871.
British historian Eric Hobsbawm concludes that he "remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, [devoting] himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers".
In 1871, it had a largely rural population of 41 million, while by 1913, this had increased to a predominantly urban population of 68 million. ====Industrial power==== For 30 years, Germany struggled against Britain to be Europe's leading industrial power.
Following Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base. By 1900, the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes.
The effective alliance between Germany and Austria played a major role in Germany's decision to enter World War I in 1914. Bismarck announced there would be no more territorial additions to Germany in Europe, and his diplomacy after 1871 was focused on stabilizing the European system and preventing any wars.
He succeeded, and only after his departure from office in 1890 did the diplomatic tensions start rising again. ====Social issues==== After achieving formal unification in 1871, Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity.
He opposed Catholic civil rights and emancipation, especially the influence of the Vatican under Pope Pius IX, and working-class radicalism, represented by the emerging Social Democratic Party. =====Kulturkampf===== Prussia in 1871 included 16,000,000 Protestants, both Reformed and Lutheran, and 8,000,000 Catholics.
They saw the Catholic Church as a powerful force of reaction and anti-modernity, especially after the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870, and the tightening control of the Vatican over the local bishops. The Kulturkampf launched by Bismarck 1871–1880 affected Prussia; although there were similar movements in Baden and Hesse, the rest of Germany was not affected.
In July 1871 Bismarck abolished the Catholic section of the Prussian Ministry of ecclesiastical and educational affairs, depriving Catholics of their voice at the highest level.
Numerous anti-Polish laws had no great effect especially in the province of Posen where the German-speaking population dropped from 42.8% in 1871 to 38.1% in 1905, despite all efforts. =====Antisemitism===== Antisemitism was endemic in Germany during the period.
While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise. In 1871, a common Criminal Code () was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established in the court system (), code of civil procedure () and code of criminal procedure ().
Unlike Britain and Russia, the French entered the war mainly for revenge against Germany, in particular for France's loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871.
Imperial Germany, 1871–1914: Economy, Society, Culture, and Politics (2nd ed.
The Evolution of Modern Germany (1908), 503 pages, covers 1871–1906 with focus on social and economic history and colonies Dawson, William Harbutt.
From Kaiserreich to Third Reich: Elements of Continuity in German History, 1871–1945.
German Foreign Policy, 1871–1914 (1979) excerpt Hewitson, Mark.
Imperial Culture in Germany, 1871–1918.
Imperial Germany 1871–1918 (2008) Ritter, Gerhard.
"Lecture Notes, Germany and Europe, 1871–1945" (2008), a brief textbook by a leading scholar Schollgen, Gregor.
The German Empire, 1871–1918.
Contesting the German Empire 1871–1918 (2008) excerpt and text search Müller, Sven Oliver, and Cornelius Torp, ed.
With the exception of 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of Prussia.
The system of strict government supervision of schools was applied only in Catholic areas; the Protestant schools were left alone. Much more serious were the May laws of 1873.
In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (If they existed at all; for example, parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code, while in Prussia the Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht of 1794 was still in effect).
In the elections of 1874, the Centre party doubled its popular vote, and became the second-largest party in the national parliament—and remained a powerful force for the next 60 years, so that after Bismarck it became difficult to form a government without their support. =====Social reform===== Bismarck built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as in the 1840s.
In the face of systematic defiance, the Bismarck government increased the penalties and its attacks, and were challenged in 1875 when a papal encyclical declared the whole ecclesiastical legislation of Prussia was invalid, and threatened to excommunicate any Catholic who obeyed.
They included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies (six before 1876), seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory.
By 1876, all the Prussian bishops were imprisoned or in exile, and a third of the Catholic parishes were without a priest.
While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise. In 1871, a common Criminal Code () was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established in the court system (), code of civil procedure () and code of criminal procedure ().
In 1879, the German Empire consolidated the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary, followed by the Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882.
According to Kees van Kersbergen and Barbara Vis, his strategy was: Bismarck created the modern welfare state in Germany in the 1880s and enacted universal male suffrage in 1871.
For instance, Kaiser Wilhelm II, who dismissed the chancellor in 1890, let the treaty with Russia lapse in favor of Germany's alliance with Austria, which finally led to a stronger coalition-building between Russia and France. ====Colonies==== Bismarck secured a number of German colonial possessions during the 1880s in Africa and the Pacific, but he never considered an overseas colonial empire valuable due to fierce resistance to German colonial rule from the natives.
By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and forged ahead of France.
In the 1880s he introduced old-age pensions, accident insurance, medical care and unemployment insurance that formed the basis of the modern European welfare state.
Bismarck wanted to prevent this at all costs and maintain friendly relations with the Russians and thereby formed an alliance with them and Austria-Hungary, the Dreikaiserbund (League of Three Emperors), in 1881.
In 1881, a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire, an enormous effort that would produce the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB), possibly one of the most impressive legal works in the world; it was eventually put into effect on 1 January 1900.
In 1879, the German Empire consolidated the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary, followed by the Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882.
The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accident insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the largest in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today. Bismarck's paternalistic programs won the support of German industry because its goals were to win the support of the working classes for the Empire and reduce the outflow of immigrants to America, where wages were higher but welfare did not exist.
Bismarck began the process, and by 1884 had acquired German New Guinea.
The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accident insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the largest in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today. Bismarck's paternalistic programs won the support of German industry because its goals were to win the support of the working classes for the Empire and reduce the outflow of immigrants to America, where wages were higher but welfare did not exist.
German Women for Empire, 1884–1945 (2001) :Historiography Berghahn, Volker Rolf.
In 1886, he moved to stop an attempted sale of horses to France because they might be used for cavalry and also ordered an investigation into large Russian purchases of medicine from a German chemical works.
The first motorcar was built by Karl Benz in 1886.
The alliance was further cemented by a separate non-aggression pact with Russia called Reinsurance Treaty, which was signed in 1887.
The dismissal of Robert von Puttkamer, the highly conservative Prussian interior minister, on 8 June was a sign of the expected direction and a blow to Bismarck's administration. By the time of his accession, however, Frederick had developed incurable laryngeal cancer, which had been diagnosed in 1887.
All of these codifications are, albeit with many amendments, still in effect today. ===Year of the three emperors=== On 9 March 1888, Wilhelm I died shortly before his 91st birthday, leaving his son Frederick III as the new emperor.
He died on the 99th day of his rule, on 15 June 1888.
The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accident insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the largest in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today. Bismarck's paternalistic programs won the support of German industry because its goals were to win the support of the working classes for the Empire and reduce the outflow of immigrants to America, where wages were higher but welfare did not exist.
A key difference between Wilhelm II and Bismarck was their approaches to handling political crises, especially in 1889, when German coal miners went on strike in Upper Silesia.
By 1913, Germany was the largest economy in Continental Europe, surpassing the United Kingdom (excluding its Empire and Dominions), as well as the third-largest in the world, only behind the United States and the British Empire, which were also its main economic rivals. From 1871 to 1890, Otto von Bismarck's tenure as the first and to this day longest-serving Chancellor was marked by relative liberalism, but it became more conservative afterward.
After the removal of Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II in 1890, the empire embarked on Weltpolitik – a bellicose new course that ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
As a result, by the time of the great expansion of German cities in the 1890s and 1900s, rural areas were grossly over-represented. The legislation also required the consent of the Bundesrat, the federal council of deputies from the 27 states.
Universal suffrage was significantly diluted by gross over-representation of rural areas from the 1890s onward.
For instance, Kaiser Wilhelm II, who dismissed the chancellor in 1890, let the treaty with Russia lapse in favor of Germany's alliance with Austria, which finally led to a stronger coalition-building between Russia and France. ====Colonies==== Bismarck secured a number of German colonial possessions during the 1880s in Africa and the Pacific, but he never considered an overseas colonial empire valuable due to fierce resistance to German colonial rule from the natives.
By the 1890s, German colonial expansion in Asia and the Pacific (Kiauchau in China, Tientsin in China, the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, Samoa) led to frictions with the UK, Russia, Japan, and the US.
He succeeded, and only after his departure from office in 1890 did the diplomatic tensions start rising again. ====Social issues==== After achieving formal unification in 1871, Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity.
The fractious relationship ended in March 1890, after Wilhelm II and Bismarck quarrelled, and the chancellor resigned days later.
The reforms of Chancellor Leo von Caprivi, which liberalized trade and so reduced unemployment, were supported by the Kaiser and most Germans except for Prussian landowners, who feared loss of land and power and launched several campaigns against the reforms While Prussian aristocrats challenged the demands of a united German state, in the 1890s several organizations were set up to challenge the authoritarian conservative Prussian militarism which was being imposed on the country.
At the same time, a new generation of cultural creators emerged. From the 1890s onwards, the most effective opposition to the monarchy came from the newly formed Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), whose radicals advocated Marxism.
Wilhelm missed the opportunity to secure an alliance with Britain in the 1890s when it was involved in colonial rivalries with France, and he alienated British statesmen further by openly supporting the Boers in the South African War and building a navy to rival Britain's.
With the exception of 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of Prussia.
The Price of Exclusion: Ethnicity, National Identity, and the Decline of German Liberalism, 1898–1933 (2007). Levy, Richard S.
In an interview with Wilhelm in 1899, Cecil Rhodes had tried "to convince the Kaiser that the future of the German empire abroad lay in the Middle East" and not in Africa; with a grand Middle-Eastern empire, Germany could afford to allow Britain the unhindered completion of the Cape-to-Cairo railway that Rhodes favoured.
As a result, by the time of the great expansion of German cities in the 1890s and 1900s, rural areas were grossly over-represented. The legislation also required the consent of the Bundesrat, the federal council of deputies from the 27 states.
The largest colonial enterprises were in Africa, where the Herero Wars in what is now Namibia in 1906–1907 resulted in the Herero and Namaqua genocide. ====Economy==== By 1900, Germany became the largest economy in continental Europe and the third-largest in the world behind the United States and the British Empire, which were also its main economic rivals.
Following Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base. By 1900, the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes.
In 1881, a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire, an enormous effort that would produce the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB), possibly one of the most impressive legal works in the world; it was eventually put into effect on 1 January 1900.
Under Wilhelm II, with the financial backing of the Deutsche Bank, the Baghdad Railway was begun in 1900, although by 1914 it was still short of its destination in Baghdad.
Germany and Britain managed through Chile to have Ecuador deny the United States a naval base in the Galápagos Islands. Claims that German communties in South America acted as extensions of the German Empire were ubiquituous by 1900 but it has never been proved that these communities acted in such way to any significant degree.
Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor, 1859–1900 (1989) online edition; vol2: Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941 (1996) online edition Chickering, Roger.
The Great Naval Race: Anglo-German Naval Rivalry 1900–1914 (2005) Ragins, Sanford.
Between 1901 and 1918, the Germans won four Nobel Prizes in Medicine, six Prizes in Physics, seven Prizes in Chemistry, and three Prizes in Literature.
Thomas Mann published his novel Buddenbrooks in 1901.
By 1902, the factory alone became "A great city with its own streets, its own police force, fire department and traffic laws.
In 1904, the Herero and the Nama revolted against the colonists in Southwest Africa, killing farm families, their laborers and servants.
Numerous anti-Polish laws had no great effect especially in the province of Posen where the German-speaking population dropped from 42.8% in 1871 to 38.1% in 1905, despite all efforts. =====Antisemitism===== Antisemitism was endemic in Germany during the period.
The largest colonial enterprises were in Africa, where the Herero Wars in what is now Namibia in 1906–1907 resulted in the Herero and Namaqua genocide. ====Economy==== By 1900, Germany became the largest economy in continental Europe and the third-largest in the world behind the United States and the British Empire, which were also its main economic rivals.
But of these German colonies only Togoland and German Samoa (after 1908) became self-sufficient and profitable; all the others required subsidies from the Berlin treasury for building infrastructure, school systems, hospitals and other institutions. Bismarck had originally dismissed the agitation for colonies with contempt; he favoured a Eurocentric foreign policy, as the treaty arrangements made during his tenure in office show.
Germany was left with no firm ally but Austria-Hungary, and her support for action in annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 further soured relations with Russia.
The AEG turbine factory in Berlin by Peter Behrens from 1909 was a milestone in classic modern architecture and an outstanding example of emerging functionalism.
Britain initially supported the Baghdad Railway; but by 1911 British statesmen came to fear it might be extended to Basra on the Persian Gulf, threatening Britain's naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean.
By 1911 Wilhelm had completely picked apart the careful power balance established by Bismarck and Britain turned to France in the Entente Cordiale.
This policy failed when the Social Democrats won a third of the votes in the 1912 elections to the Reichstag, and became the largest political party in Germany.
In 1871, Germany had a population of 41 million people; by 1913, this had increased to 68 million.
By 1913, Germany was the largest economy in Continental Europe, surpassing the United Kingdom (excluding its Empire and Dominions), as well as the third-largest in the world, only behind the United States and the British Empire, which were also its main economic rivals. From 1871 to 1890, Otto von Bismarck's tenure as the first and to this day longest-serving Chancellor was marked by relative liberalism, but it became more conservative afterward.
In 1871, it had a largely rural population of 41 million, while by 1913, this had increased to a predominantly urban population of 68 million. ====Industrial power==== For 30 years, Germany struggled against Britain to be Europe's leading industrial power.
In 1913, these eight firms produced almost 90% of the world supply of dyestuffs and sold about 80% of their production abroad.
When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, Italy left the alliance and the Ottoman Empire formally allied with Germany. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in the autumn of 1914 failed.
As the French lacked the strength to defeat Germany by themselves, they sought an alliance with Russia, which would trap Germany between the two in a war (as would ultimately happen in 1914).
In 1914, 60% of German foreign investment was in Europe, as opposed to just 5% of British investment.
Conflict over the Baghdad Railway was resolved in June 1914. Many consider Bismarck's foreign policy as a coherent system and partly responsible for the preservation of Europe's stability.
The effective alliance between Germany and Austria played a major role in Germany's decision to enter World War I in 1914. Bismarck announced there would be no more territorial additions to Germany in Europe, and his diplomacy after 1871 was focused on stabilizing the European system and preventing any wars.
Under Wilhelm II, with the financial backing of the Deutsche Bank, the Baghdad Railway was begun in 1900, although by 1914 it was still short of its destination in Baghdad.
The catastrophic German politics between 1914 and 1945 are interpreted in terms of a delayed modernisation of its political structures.
Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 (2nd ed.
When war came, Italy saw more benefit in an alliance with Britain, France, and Russia, which, in the secret Treaty of London in 1915 promised it the frontier districts of Austria where Italians formed the majority of the population and also colonial concessions.
A series of allied offensives in 1915 against German positions in Artois and Champagne resulted in huge allied casualties and little territorial change.
German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn decided to exploit the defensive advantages that had shown themselves in the 1915 Allied offensives by attempting to goad France into attacking strong defensive positions near the ancient city of Verdun.
By 1916, Germany was effectively a military dictatorship run by Hindenburg and Ludendorff, with the Kaiser reduced to a mere figurehead. ====Foreign affairs==== =====Colonialism===== Wilhelm II wanted Germany to have her "place in the sun", like Britain, which he constantly wished to emulate or rival.
He predicted that French losses would be greater than those of the Germans and that continued French commitment of troops to Verdun would "bleed the French Army white." In 1916, the Battle of Verdun began, with the French positions under constant shelling and poison gas attack and taking large casualties under the assault of overwhelmingly large German forces.
Falkenhayn was replaced by Erich Ludendorff, and with no success in sight, the German Army pulled out of Verdun in December 1916 and the battle ended. ====Eastern Front==== While the Western Front was a stalemate for the German Army, the Eastern Front eventually proved to be a great success.
The winter of 1916–1917 was known as the "turnip winter", because the people had to survive on a vegetable more commonly reserved for livestock, as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce.
The German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 contributed to bringing the United States into the war. The high command under Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff increasingly controlled the country, but in October 1918, after the failed Spring Offensive, the German armies were in retreat, allies Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, and Bulgaria had surrendered.
In 1917 the German government allowed Russia's communist Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin to travel through Germany from Switzerland into Russia.
Germany believed that if Lenin could create further political unrest, Russia would no longer be able to continue its war with Germany, allowing the German Army to focus on the Western Front. In March 1917, the Tsar was ousted from the Russian throne, and in November a Bolshevik government came to power under the leadership of Lenin.
His force was still active at war's end. ====1918==== The defeat of Russia in 1917 enabled Germany to transfer hundreds of thousands of troops from the Eastern to the Western Front, giving it a numerical advantage over the Allies.
into the war in April 1917 tipped the long-run balance of power even more in favour of the Allies. The end of October 1918, in Kiel, in northern Germany, saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–1919.
Between 1901 and 1918, the Germans won four Nobel Prizes in Medicine, six Prizes in Physics, seven Prizes in Chemistry, and three Prizes in Literature.
The German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 contributed to bringing the United States into the war. The high command under Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff increasingly controlled the country, but in October 1918, after the failed Spring Offensive, the German armies were in retreat, allies Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, and Bulgaria had surrendered.
The empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution with the abdications of its monarchs.
In March 1918, by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Bolshevik government gave Germany and the Ottoman Empire enormous territorial and economic concessions in exchange for an end to war on the Eastern Front.
However, the repeated German offensives in the spring of 1918 all failed, as the Allies fell back and regrouped and the Germans lacked the reserves needed to consolidate their gains.
Around 287,000 people died of Spanish flu in Germany between 1918 and 1920. ====Revolt and demise==== Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party, which demanded an end to the war.
into the war in April 1917 tipped the long-run balance of power even more in favour of the Allies. The end of October 1918, in Kiel, in northern Germany, saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–1919.
Meanwhile, Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government. Bulgaria signed the Armistice of Salonica on 29 September 1918.
The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918.
Between 24 October and 3 November 1918, Italy defeated Austria-Hungary in the battle of Vittorio Veneto, which forced Austria-Hungary to sign the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918.
So, in November 1918, with internal revolution, the Allies advancing toward Germany on the Western Front, Austria-Hungary falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions, its other allies out of the war and pressure from the German high command, the Kaiser and all German ruling kings, dukes, and princes abdicated, and German nobility was abolished.
Transferred to the Russian SFSR and continued as a part of Russia following the collapse of the Soviet Union |} ==See also== Economic history of Germany Kingdom of Germany List of German monarchs List of German monarchs in 1918 ==References== Informational notes Citations Further reading Barker, J.
Around 287,000 people died of Spanish flu in Germany between 1918 and 1920. ====Revolt and demise==== Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party, which demanded an end to the war.
They played an especially negative role in the crisis of 1930–1933.
In the 1950s, historians in West Germany argued that the Sonderweg led Germany to the disaster of 1933–1945.
The catastrophic German politics between 1914 and 1945 are interpreted in terms of a delayed modernisation of its political structures.
In the 1950s, historians in West Germany argued that the Sonderweg led Germany to the disaster of 1933–1945.
(4 vol University of Miami Press 1969–1973) Richie, Alexandra.
The Downfall of the Anti-Semitic Political Parties in Imperial Germany (Yale University Press, 1975). Levy, Richard S.
Jewish Responses to Anti-Semitism in Germany, 1870–1914: A Study in the History of Ideas (ISD, 1980. Retallack, James.
These occurrences were sometimes referred to as "the first genocide of the 20th century" and officially condemned by the United Nations in 1985.
After 1990, increased attention to cultural dimensions and to comparative and relational history moved German historiography to different topics, with much less attention paid to the Sonderweg.
(Berg, 1990) . Smith, Helmut Walser, ed.
(Palgrave, 2003) . Kennedy, Paul.
In 2004 a formal apology by a government minister of the Federal Republic of Germany followed. =====Middle East===== Bismarck and Wilhelm II after him sought closer economic ties with the Ottoman Empire.
ed/ Antisemitism: A historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution (2 vol Abc-clio, 2005). Milward, Alan S.
"The German Empire: an Empire?" History Workshop Journal Issue 66, (Autumn 2008) online in Project MUSE, with guide to recent scholarship Jefferies, Matthew.
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