In Honduras, these reforms contributed to the resurgence of the mining industry in the 1730s. Under the Bourbons, the Spanish government made several efforts to regain control of the Caribbean coast.
Britain declared much of the area a protectorate in 1740, though they exercised little authority there as a result of the decision.
In 1752, the Spaniards built the fort of San Fernando de Omoa.
In 1780, the Spanish returned to Trujillo, which started out as base of operations against British settlements to the east.
During the 1780s, the Spanish regained control of the Bay Islands and took most of the British and their allies in the Black River area.
The Anglo-Spanish Convention of 1786 issued the final recognition of Spanish sovereignty over the Caribbean coast. ==Honduras in the nineteenth century== ===Independence from Spain (1821)=== In the early 19th century, Napoleon's occupation of Spain led to the outbreak of revolts all across Spanish America.
In New Spain, all of the fighting by those seeking independence was done in the center of that area from 1810 to 1821, what today is central Mexico.
In 1549, the capital was moved to Antigua, Guatemala, and Honduras and remained a new province within the Captaincy General of Guatemala until 1821. ===Colonial mining operations=== The first mining centers were located near the Guatemalan border, around Gracias.
In New Spain, all of the fighting by those seeking independence was done in the center of that area from 1810 to 1821, what today is central Mexico.
Once the Viceroy was defeated in the capital, Mexico City, in 1821, the news of the independence were sent to all the territories of New Spain including the Intendencies of the former Captaincy of Guatemala.
The public proclamation was done through the Act of Independence in 1821. After the declaration of independence it was the intention of the New Spain parliament to establish a commonwealth whereby the King of Spain, Ferdinand VII, would also be Emperor of New Spain, and in which both countries were to be governed by separate laws and with their own legislative offices.
The Mexican Empire was the official name given to this monarchical regime from 1821 to 1823.
The Mexican Empire was the official name given to this monarchical regime from 1821 to 1823.
The territory of the Mexican Empire included the continental intendencies and provinces of New Spain proper (including those of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala) (See: History of Central America). ===Federal independence period (1821–1838)=== In 1823, a revolution in Mexico ousted Emperor Agustín de Iturbide, and a new Mexican congress voted to allow the Central American Intendencies to decide their own fate.
The intendencies took the new name of "states". Among the most important figures of the federal era include the first democratically elected president in Honduras, Dionisio de Herrera, a lawyer, whose government, begun in 1824 established the first constitution, after him became the presidential period of Gen.
All of them sabotaged by the conservatives of all Central American countries. Although Honduras eventually adopted the name Republic of Honduras, the unionist ideal never waned, and Honduras was one of the Central American countries that pushed hardest for the policy of regional unity. In 1850, Honduras attempted to build, with foreign assistance, an Inter-Oceanic Railroad from Trujillo to Tegucigalpa and then on to the Pacific Coast.
Mining was particularly important, and the new policies coincided with the growth of banana exports, which began in the Bay Islands in the 1870s and was pursued on the mainland by small and middling farmers in the 1880s.
Reinterpreting the Banana Republic: region and state in Honduras, 1870-1972 (U of North Carolina Press, 1996). Humphreys, Robert Arthur.
Labor troubles in the banana trade however were far from over. ====The fruit companies' activity==== The Liberal government opted to expand production in mining and agriculture, and in 1876 began granting substantial grants of land and tax exemptions to foreign concerns as well as to local businesses.
Mining was particularly important, and the new policies coincided with the growth of banana exports, which began in the Bay Islands in the 1870s and was pursued on the mainland by small and middling farmers in the 1880s.
The project stalled due to difficulties in the work, corruption and other issues, and in 1888, ran out of money when it reached San Pedro Sula, resulting in its growth into the nation's main industrial center and second largest city.
Henry, the American writer who took temporary refuge in Honduras in 1896–97, to coin the term "banana republic" to describe a fictional nation he modeled on Honduras.
Since independence, nearly 300 small internal rebellions and civil wars have occurred in the country, including some changes of government. ==Honduras in the twentieth century== ===The internationalization of the north, 1899–1932=== Political stability and instability both aided and distracted the economic revolution which transformed Honduras through the development of a plantation economy on the north coast.
Because the country was effectively controlled by American fruit corporations, it was the original inspiration for the term "banana republic". ====The rise of US influence in Honduras (1899–1919)==== In 1899, the banana industry in Honduras was growing rapidly.
The result was an enclave economy centered on the settlements and activities of the three major companies, Cuyamel Fruit Company, Standard Fruit and particularly United Fruit after it absorbed Cuyamel in 1930. In 1899, Vaccaro Brothers and Company (later known as Standard Fruit),a New Orleans-based fruit corporation, came to Honduras in 1899 to buy coconuts, oranges and bananas on Roatán.
Through these two railroad companies, United Fruit dominated the banana trade in Honduras. An 1899 census showed that northern Honduras had been exporting bananas for several years and that over 1,000 people in the region between Puerto Cortes and La Ceiba (and inland as far as San Pedro Sula) were tending bananas, most of them small holders.
In 1900, American businessman Samuel Zemurray and United Fruit came to Honduras to purchase banana plantations.
In 1901, Vaccaro Brothers established offices in La Ceiba and Salado and eventually controlled the banana industry between Boca Cerrada and Balfate (an area of about 80 kilometers of coastline).
By 1902, railroads had been built along the country's Caribbean coast to accommodate the growing banana industry.
However, Sierra made efforts to stay in office and refused to step down when a new president was elected in 1902, and was overthrown by Manuel Bonilla in 1903. After toppling Sierra, Bonilla, a conservative, imprisoned ex-president Policarpo Bonilla, a liberal rival, for two years and made other attempts to suppress liberals throughout the country, as they were the only other organized political party.
In the first decades of the century, US military incursions took place in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924, and 1925.
However, Sierra made efforts to stay in office and refused to step down when a new president was elected in 1902, and was overthrown by Manuel Bonilla in 1903. After toppling Sierra, Bonilla, a conservative, imprisoned ex-president Policarpo Bonilla, a liberal rival, for two years and made other attempts to suppress liberals throughout the country, as they were the only other organized political party.
As part of the so-called Banana Wars all around the Caribbean, Honduras saw the insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924 and 1925.
In 1905, Zemurray started buying his own plantations and in 1910, after purchasing of plantation land in Honduras, formed his own company, the Cuyamel Fruit Company.
He also successfully established the border with Nicaragua and resisted an invasion from Guatemala in 1906.
In the first decades of the century, US military incursions took place in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924, and 1925.
Supported by elements of the Nicaraguan army, the exiles invaded Honduras in February 1907.
At the conference, the five countries signed the General Treaty of Peace and Amity of 1907, which established the Central American Court of Justice to resolve future disputes among the five nations.
As part of the so-called Banana Wars all around the Caribbean, Honduras saw the insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924 and 1925.
The treaty in many ways followed the provisions of the 1907 treaty.
Honduras also agreed to become permanently neutral in any future conflicts among the other nations. In 1908, opponents of Davila made an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow him.
By the end of 1909, an agreement had been reached providing for a reduction in the debt and the issuance of new 5% bonds: The bankers would control the Honduran railroad, and the United States government would guarantee continued Honduran independence and would take control of custom revenue. The terms proposed by the bankers met with considerable opposition in Honduras, further weakening the Dávila government.
In 1905, Zemurray started buying his own plantations and in 1910, after purchasing of plantation land in Honduras, formed his own company, the Cuyamel Fruit Company.
The two companies' wealth and powerful connections allowed them to gain extraordinary influence in the Honduran government. Rivalries between the companies, however, escalated in 1910, when the United Fruit came to Honduras to set up operations; the company had already been a local producer of bananas in Honduras.
In the first decades of the century, US military incursions took place in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924, and 1925.
Morgan was finally signed in January 1911 and submitted to the Honduran legislature by Dávila.
However, that body, in a rare display of independence, rejected it by a vote of thirty-three to five. An uprising in 1911 against Dávila interrupted efforts to deal with the debt problem.
Between 1911 and 1920, Honduras saw relative stability.
As part of the so-called Banana Wars all around the Caribbean, Honduras saw the insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924 and 1925.
In the first decades of the century, US military incursions took place in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924, and 1925.
Dawson selected Francisco Bertrand, who promised to hold early, free elections, and Dávila resigned. The 1912 elections were won by Manuel Bonilla, but he died after just over a year in office.
By 1912, United Fruit had two concessions it had purchased with government approval.
By 1912, three companies dominated the banana trade in Honduras: Samuel Zemurray's Cuyamel Fruit Company, Vaccaro Brothers and Company and the United Fruit Company; all of which tended to be vertically integrated, owning their own lands and railroad companies and ship lines such as United's "Great White Fleet".
As part of the so-called Banana Wars all around the Caribbean, Honduras saw the insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924 and 1925.
In 1913, United Fruit established the Tela Railroad Company and shortly thereafter a similar subsidiary, the Trujillo Railroad Company; these two railroads managed the concessions which the Honduran government granted them.
Bertrand, who had been his vice president, returned to the presidency and in 1916 won election for a term that lasted until 1920.
The first of these occurred in 1917 against the Cuyamel Fruit Company.
For instance, in 1917 the Cuyamel Fruit Company extended its rail lines into disputed Guatemalan territory. ====Renewed instability (1919–1924)==== In 1919, it became obvious that Francisco Bertrand would refuse to allow an open election to choose his successor.
In the first decades of the century, US military incursions took place in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924, and 1925.
As part of the so-called Banana Wars all around the Caribbean, Honduras saw the insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924 and 1925.
For instance, in 1917 the Cuyamel Fruit Company extended its rail lines into disputed Guatemalan territory. ====Renewed instability (1919–1924)==== In 1919, it became obvious that Francisco Bertrand would refuse to allow an open election to choose his successor.
The United States landed US Marines on 11 September 1919.
Young's investigations clearly demonstrated the desperate need for major financial reforms in Honduras, whose always precarious budgetary situation was considerably worsened by the renewal of revolutionary activities. In 1919, for example, the military had spent more than double the amount budgeted for them, accounting for over 57 percent of all federal expenditures.
From 1919 to 1924, the Honduran government expended US$7.2 million beyond the amount covered by the regular budgets for military operations. ====Coups==== From 1920 through 1923, seventeen uprisings or attempted coups in Honduras contributed to growing United States concern over political instability in Central America.
Bertrand, who had been his vice president, returned to the presidency and in 1916 won election for a term that lasted until 1920.
Between 1911 and 1920, Honduras saw relative stability.
This stability however would prove to be difficult to maintain in the years following 1920.
In 1920, a general strike hit the Caribbean coast.
López Gutiérrez won easily in a manipulated election, and in October 1920 he assumed the presidency. During Bográn's brief time in office, he had agreed to a United States proposal to invite a United States financial adviser to Honduras.
Young of the Department of State was selected for this task and began work in Honduras in August 1920, continuing to August 1921.
From 1919 to 1924, the Honduran government expended US$7.2 million beyond the amount covered by the regular budgets for military operations. ====Coups==== From 1920 through 1923, seventeen uprisings or attempted coups in Honduras contributed to growing United States concern over political instability in Central America.
Young of the Department of State was selected for this task and began work in Honduras in August 1920, continuing to August 1921.
In August 1922, the presidents of Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador met on the USS Tacoma in the Gulf of Fonseca.
From 1919 to 1924, the Honduran government expended US$7.2 million beyond the amount covered by the regular budgets for military operations. ====Coups==== From 1920 through 1923, seventeen uprisings or attempted coups in Honduras contributed to growing United States concern over political instability in Central America.
Under the watchful eye of the United States ambassadors to their nations, the presidents pledged to prevent their territories from being used to promote revolutions against their neighbors and issued a call for a general meeting of Central American states in Washington at the end of the year. The Washington conference concluded in February with the adoption of the General Treaty of Peace and Amity of 1923, which had eleven supplemental conventions.
The arms limitation agreement set a ceiling on the size of each nation's military forces (2,500 men in the case of Honduras) and included a United States-sponsored pledge to seek foreign assistance in establishing more professional armed forces. The October 1923 Honduran presidential elections and subsequent political and military conflicts provided the first real tests of these new treaty arrangements.
General Carías and a variety of other rebel leaders controlled most of the countryside but failed to coordinate their activities effectively enough to seize the capital. In an effort to end the fighting, the United States government dispatched Sumner Welles to the port of Amapala; he had instructions to try to produce a settlement that would bring to power a government eligible for recognition under the terms of the 1923 treaty.
Furthermore, the United States persuaded El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua to join in declaring that under the 1923 treaty provision, no leader of the recent revolution would be recognized as president for the coming term.
In the first decades of the century, US military incursions took place in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924, and 1925.
As part of the so-called Banana Wars all around the Caribbean, Honduras saw the insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924 and 1925.
From 1919 to 1924, the Honduran government expended US$7.2 million beyond the amount covered by the regular budgets for military operations. ====Coups==== From 1920 through 1923, seventeen uprisings or attempted coups in Honduras contributed to growing United States concern over political instability in Central America.
Under the terms of the Honduran constitution, this stalemate left the final choice of president up to the legislature, but that body was unable to obtain a quorum and reach a decision. In January 1924, López Gutiérrez announced his intention to remain in office until new elections could be held, but he repeatedly refused to specify a date for the elections.
In February the United States, warning that recognition would be withheld from anyone coming to power by revolutionary means, suspended relations with the López Gutiérrez government for its failure to hold elections. Conditions rapidly deteriorated in the early months of 1924.
Under heavy pressure from the United States delegation, however, he ultimately complied with the provisions of the peace agreement. Keeping the 1924 elections on track proved difficult.
Earlier constituent assemblies had written thirteen constitutions (only ten of which had entered into force), and the latest had been adopted in 1924.
The handpicked Constituent Assembly of 1936 incorporated thirty of the articles of the 1924 document into the 1936 constitution. The major changes were the elimination of the prohibition on immediate reelection of a president and vice president and lengthening the presidential term from four years to six.
In the first decades of the century, US military incursions took place in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924, and 1925.
As part of the so-called Banana Wars all around the Caribbean, Honduras saw the insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924 and 1925.
The PLH, after some debate, refused to nominate a candidate, and on 28 December Paz Barahona won virtual unanimous election. ====Restoration of order (1925–1931)==== Despite another minor uprising led by General Ferrera in 1925, Paz Barahona's administration was, by Honduran standards, rather tranquil.
The ruling PNH nominated General Carías while the PLH, united again following the death of Policarpo Bonilla in 1926, nominated Vicente Mejía Colindres.
Under the terms of this agreement, Honduras, at last, seemed on the road to fiscal solvency. Fears of disturbances increased again in 1928 as the scheduled presidential elections approached.
Even more surprising was Carías's public acceptance of defeat and his urging of his supporters to accept the new government. Mejía Colindres took office in 1929 with high hopes for his administration and his nation.
United Fruit had come increasingly to dominate the trade, and in 1929 it bought out the Cuyamel Fruit Company, one of its two principal remaining rivals.
The result was an enclave economy centered on the settlements and activities of the three major companies, Cuyamel Fruit Company, Standard Fruit and particularly United Fruit after it absorbed Cuyamel in 1930. In 1899, Vaccaro Brothers and Company (later known as Standard Fruit),a New Orleans-based fruit corporation, came to Honduras in 1899 to buy coconuts, oranges and bananas on Roatán.
By 1930 Honduras had become the world's leading producer of the fruit, accounting for one-third of the world's supply of bananas.
Banana exports peaked in 1930, then declined rapidly.
Most of Carías's first term in office was devoted to efforts to avoid financial collapse, improve the military, engage in a limited program of road building, and lay the foundations for prolonging his own hold on power. The economy remained extremely bad throughout the 1930s.
By the end of the 1930s, the PNH was the only organized functioning political party in the nation.
Relations with Nicaragua were somewhat more strained as a result of the continuing border dispute, but Carías and Somoza managed to keep this dispute under control throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The value of these ties became somewhat questionable in 1944 when popular revolts in Guatemala and El Salvador deposed Ubico and Hernández Martínez.
The prospect for tranquility was further advanced in 1931 when Ferrera and his insurgents were killed, while leading one last unsuccessful effort to overthrow the government, after government troops discovered their hiding place in Chamelecon. Many of Mejía Colindres's hopes, however, were dashed with the onset of the Great Depression.
As the depression deepened, the government's financial situation deteriorated; in 1931 Mejía Colindres was forced to borrow US$250,000 from the fruit companies to ensure that the army would continue to be paid. ===Tiburcio Carías Andino (1932–1949)=== Despite growing unrest and severe economic strains, the 1932 presidential elections in Honduras were relatively peaceful and fair.
As the depression deepened, the government's financial situation deteriorated; in 1931 Mejía Colindres was forced to borrow US$250,000 from the fruit companies to ensure that the army would continue to be paid. ===Tiburcio Carías Andino (1932–1949)=== Despite growing unrest and severe economic strains, the 1932 presidential elections in Honduras were relatively peaceful and fair.
After United Fruit bought out Cuyamel, Sam Zemurray, a strong supporter of the Liberal Party, left the country and the Liberals were short on cash by the 1932 general election.
On 16 November 1932, Carías took office, beginning what was to be the longest period of continuous time in power by any individual in Honduran history. Shortly before Carías's inauguration, dissident liberals, despite the opposition of Mejía Colindres, had risen in revolt.
Exiled opposition figures were allowed to return to Honduras, and the PLH, trying to overcome years of inactivity and division, nominated Zúñiga Huete, the same individual whom Carías had defeated in 1932.
The PNH nominated Carías's choice for president – Juan Manuel Gálvez, who had been minister of war since 1933.
He gave special attention to the fledgling air force, founding the Military Aviation School in 1934 and arranging for a United States colonel to serve as its commandant. As months passed, Carías moved slowly but steadily to strengthen his hold on power.
In addition to the dramatic drop in banana exports caused by the depression, the fruit industry was further threatened by the outbreak in 1935 of epidemics of Panama disease (a debilitating fungus) and sigatoka (leaf blight) in the banana-producing areas.
Two small loans were paid off completely in 1935. Political controls were instituted slowly under Carías.
The Communist Party of Honduras (Partido Comunista de Honduras—PCH) was outlawed, but the PLH continued to function, and even the leaders of a small uprising in 1935 were later offered free air transportation should they wish to return to Honduras from their exile abroad.
At the end of 1935, however, stressing the need for peace and internal order, Carías began to crack down on the opposition press and political activities.
The handpicked Constituent Assembly of 1936 incorporated thirty of the articles of the 1924 document into the 1936 constitution. The major changes were the elimination of the prohibition on immediate reelection of a president and vice president and lengthening the presidential term from four years to six.
Numerous coup attempts in 1936 and 1937, succeeded only in further weakening the PNH's opponents.
By 1937 a means of controlling the disease had been found, but many of the affected areas remained out of production because a significant share of the market formerly held by Honduras had shifted to other nations. Carías had made efforts to improve the military even before he became president.
Numerous coup attempts in 1936 and 1937, succeeded only in further weakening the PNH's opponents.
But Carías, by then a virtual dictator, wanted even more, so in 1939 the legislature, now completely controlled by the PNH, extended his term in office by another six years (to 1949). The PLH and other opponents of the government reacted to these changes by attempting to overthrow Carías.
Relations with Nicaragua were somewhat more strained as a result of the continuing border dispute, but Carías and Somoza managed to keep this dispute under control throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The value of these ties became somewhat questionable in 1944 when popular revolts in Guatemala and El Salvador deposed Ubico and Hernández Martínez.
Capital punishment was abolished in 1956, though Honduras hadn't had an execution since 1940.
The military remained loyal, and Carías continued in office. ==== Second world war ==== Honduras declared war on the Empire of Japan on December 8, 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, which then spread to Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy on December 12 of the same year.
Several Honduran ships were sunk in the Caribbean by German submarines, which had already been sighted in the Gulf of Fonseca and the Caratasca lagoon, therefore air patrols began in 1942.
The first sighting of a German U-boat by the air force occurred on July 24, 1942 and was attacked with 60-pound bombs, being the first and possible only official record of a military confrontation between Honduras and Nazi Germany. ==== End of Caria's regime ==== Anxious to curb further disorder in the region, the United States began to urge Carías to step aside and allow free elections when his term of office expired.
Finally, the new constitution included an article specifying that the incumbent president and vice president would remain in office until 1943.
A plot, involving some military officers as well as opposition civilians, had already been discovered and crushed in late 1943.
Relations with Nicaragua were somewhat more strained as a result of the continuing border dispute, but Carías and Somoza managed to keep this dispute under control throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The value of these ties became somewhat questionable in 1944 when popular revolts in Guatemala and El Salvador deposed Ubico and Hernández Martínez.
In May 1944, a group of women began demonstrating outside of the Presidential Palace in Tegucigalpa, demanding the release of political prisoners. Despite strong government measures, tension continued to grow, and Carías was ultimately forced to release some prisoners.
Carías, by then in his early seventies, ultimately yielded and announced October 1948 elections, in which he would not run.
But Carías, by then a virtual dictator, wanted even more, so in 1939 the legislature, now completely controlled by the PNH, extended his term in office by another six years (to 1949). The PLH and other opponents of the government reacted to these changes by attempting to overthrow Carías.
This act gave Gálvez a virtually unopposed victory, and in January 1949, he assumed the presidency. Evaluating the Carías presidency is a difficult task.
The fruit companies continued to receive favorable treatment at the hands of the Gálvez administration; for example, United Fruit received a highly favorable twenty-five-year contract in 1949. Galvez however did institute some notable innovations.
By 1953 nearly one-quarter of the government budget was allocated to road construction.
Congress passed, and the president signed, legislation establishing the eight-hour workday, paid holidays for workers, limited employer responsibility for work-related injuries, and regulations over the employment of women and children. ===1955–1979=== After the general strike in 1954, young military reformists staged a coup in October 1955 that installed a provisional junta.
Congress passed, and the president signed, legislation establishing the eight-hour workday, paid holidays for workers, limited employer responsibility for work-related injuries, and regulations over the employment of women and children. ===1955–1979=== After the general strike in 1954, young military reformists staged a coup in October 1955 that installed a provisional junta.
Capital punishment was abolished in 1956, though Honduras hadn't had an execution since 1940.
Constituent assembly elections in 1957 appointed Ramón Villeda as president, and the constituent assembly itself became a national Congress with a 6-year term.
The Liberal Party of Honduras (PLH) held power in 1957–63.
The military began to become a professional institution independent of politics, with the newly created military academy graduating its first class in 1960.
The diplomatic history of British Honduras, 1638-1901 (Oxford UP, 1961).
In October 1963, conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed Ramón Villeda Morales in a bloody coup.
These officers exiled PLH members and governed under General Oswaldo López until 1970. In July 1969, El Salvador invaded Honduras in the short Football War.
These officers exiled PLH members and governed under General Oswaldo López until 1970. In July 1969, El Salvador invaded Honduras in the short Football War.
Tensions in the aftermath of the conflict remain. A civilian president for the PNH, Ramón Ernesto Cruz, took power briefly in 1970 until, in December 1972, López staged another coup.
Tensions in the aftermath of the conflict remain. A civilian president for the PNH, Ramón Ernesto Cruz, took power briefly in 1970 until, in December 1972, López staged another coup.
Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and nongovernmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated. From 1972 to 1983, Honduras was governed by soldiers.
A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981.
In the 1980s, the Reagan administration used the country as a platform in its war against the Sandinista government of Nicaragua and the leftist guerrillas of El Salvador and Guatemala.
He won on a platform calling for "moral revolution" and made active efforts to prosecute corruption and pursue those responsible for alleged human rights abuses in the 1980s.
A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981.
military assistance to Honduras increased from $4 million in 1981 to $77.4 million in 1984.
The country experienced economic growth during this period, with greater international demand for its products and increased availability of foreign commercial capital. ===Constituent assembly (1980)=== In 1982, the country returned to civilian rule.
A new constitution was approved in 1982 and the PLH government of Roberto Suazo assumed power. ===1980s=== Roberto Suazo Córdova won the elections on an ambitious program of economic and social development to tackle the country's recession.
Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and nongovernmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated. From 1972 to 1983, Honduras was governed by soldiers.
military assistance to Honduras increased from $4 million in 1981 to $77.4 million in 1984.
support, created ambitious social and economic development projects to help with a severe economic recession and with the perceived threat of regional instability. As the November 1985 election approached, the PLH could not settle on a presidential candidate and interpreted election law as permitting multiple candidates from any one party.
José Azcona, the candidate receiving the most votes (27%) among the PLH, assumed the presidency in January 1986.
In 1989 he oversaw the dismantling of Contras which were based in Honduras. In 1988, in Operation Golden Pheasant, US forces were deployed to Honduras in response to Nicaraguan attacks on Contra supply caches in Honduras. ===1990s=== In January 1990, Rafael Leonardo Callejas won the presidential election and took office, concentrating on economic reform and reducing the deficit.
In 1989 he oversaw the dismantling of Contras which were based in Honduras. In 1988, in Operation Golden Pheasant, US forces were deployed to Honduras in response to Nicaraguan attacks on Contra supply caches in Honduras. ===1990s=== In January 1990, Rafael Leonardo Callejas won the presidential election and took office, concentrating on economic reform and reducing the deficit.
In 1989 he oversaw the dismantling of Contras which were based in Honduras. In 1988, in Operation Golden Pheasant, US forces were deployed to Honduras in response to Nicaraguan attacks on Contra supply caches in Honduras. ===1990s=== In January 1990, Rafael Leonardo Callejas won the presidential election and took office, concentrating on economic reform and reducing the deficit.
He began a movement to place the military under civilian control and laid the groundwork for the creation of the public prosecution service. In 1993, PLH candidate Carlos Roberto Reina was elected with 56% of the vote against PNH contender Oswaldo Ramos Soto.
US Library of Congress, 1995). Moody, Jason M.
Reinterpreting the Banana Republic: region and state in Honduras, 1870-1972 (U of North Carolina Press, 1996). Humphreys, Robert Arthur.
Flores inaugurated International Monetary Fund (IMF) programs of reform and modernization of the Honduran government and economy, with emphasis on maintaining the country's fiscal health and improving international competitiveness. In October 1998, Hurricane Mitch devastated Honduras, leaving more than 5,000 people dead and 1.5 million displaced.
International donors came forward to assist in rebuilding infrastructure, donating US$1400 million in 2000. ==Honduras in the twenty-first century== ===2000s=== In November 2001, the National Party won presidential and parliamentary elections.
International donors came forward to assist in rebuilding infrastructure, donating US$1400 million in 2000. ==Honduras in the twenty-first century== ===2000s=== In November 2001, the National Party won presidential and parliamentary elections.
The PLH candidate Rafael Pineda was defeated by the PNH candidate Ricardo Maduro, who took office in January 2002.
Maduro administration emphasized stopping mara growth, especially Mara 18 and Mara Salvatrucha. On 27 November 2005, the PLH candidate Manuel Zelaya beat the PNH candidate and current Head of Congress Porfirio "Pepe" Lobo, and became the new president on 27 January 2006. Jose Manuel Zelaya Rosales of the Liberal Party of Honduras won 27 November 2005 presidential elections with less than a 4% margin of victory, the smallest margin ever in Honduran electoral history.
Banana cultures: Agriculture, consumption, and environmental change in Honduras and the United States (U of Texas Press, 2005).
Maduro administration emphasized stopping mara growth, especially Mara 18 and Mara Salvatrucha. On 27 November 2005, the PLH candidate Manuel Zelaya beat the PNH candidate and current Head of Congress Porfirio "Pepe" Lobo, and became the new president on 27 January 2006. Jose Manuel Zelaya Rosales of the Liberal Party of Honduras won 27 November 2005 presidential elections with less than a 4% margin of victory, the smallest margin ever in Honduran electoral history.
The Liberal Party won 62 of the 128 congressional seats, just short of an absolute majority. In 2009 Zelaya caused controversy with his call to have a constitutional referendum in June to decide about convening a Constitutional National Assembly to formulate a new constitution.
Congress saw this as an abuse of power and ordered his capture. On 28 June 2009, the military removed Zelaya from office and deported him to Costa Rica, a neutral country.
The history of Honduras (ABC-CLIO, 2011) excerpt; a standard scholarly history with long bibliography Merrill, Tim L.
"Crisis in Honduras: the search for answers to the removal of president Manuel Zelaya" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2013) online Reichman, Daniel R.
"Violence in Honduras: an analysis of the failure in public security and the states response to criminality" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2014) online Euraque, Darío A.
In 2015, the supreme court of Honduras removed a single-term limit for the country’s presidency.
President Juan Orlando Hernandez was reelected in 2017, winning the election through an alleged electoral fraud that produced constant protests and violence in the streets.
In 2019, Juan Orlando Hernadez's younger brother Juan Antonio “Tony” Hernández was brought to trial in New York for drug trafficking.
He was convicted of all four charges against him, including drug trafficking and lying to authorities. === 2020s === In September 2020, Honduran President Juan Orlando Hernandez announced that Honduras will relocate its embassy to Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.
Honduras became the third country in the world after the United States and Guatemala to establish embassies to Israel in Jerusalem. In January 2021, Honduras changed the country's constitution to make it almost impossible to legalize abortion in the future.
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