On 20 December 1777, Morocco became one of the first states to recognize the sovereignty of a newly independent United States. During the reigns of Muhammad IV (1859–1873) and Hassan I (1873–1894), the Alaouites tried to foster trade links, especially with European countries and the United States.
France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830.
Morocco Since 1830: A History, New York University Press, 2000.
The Alaouite dynasty succeeded in maintaining the independence of Morocco in the 18th and 19th centuries, in the face of Ottoman and European encroachment. In 1844, after the French conquered Algeria, the Franco-Moroccan War took place, with the bombardment of Tangiers, the Battle of Isly, and the bombardment of Mogador. In 1856, Sultan Abd al-Rahman's Makhzen signed the Anglo-Moroccan treaty, which was negotiated with the British diplomat John Hay Drummond Hay.
The Alaouite dynasty succeeded in maintaining the independence of Morocco in the 18th and 19th centuries, in the face of Ottoman and European encroachment. In 1844, after the French conquered Algeria, the Franco-Moroccan War took place, with the bombardment of Tangiers, the Battle of Isly, and the bombardment of Mogador. In 1856, Sultan Abd al-Rahman's Makhzen signed the Anglo-Moroccan treaty, which was negotiated with the British diplomat John Hay Drummond Hay.
In 1859, Morocco went to war with Spain.
The Alliance Israélite Universelle opened its first school in Tetuan in 1862. In the latter part of the 19th century Morocco's instability resulted in European countries intervening to protect investments and to demand economic concessions.
The independence of Morocco was guaranteed at the Conference of Madrid in 1880, with France also gaining significant influence over Morocco.
Sultan Hassan I called for the Madrid Conference of 1880 in response to France and Spain's abuse of the protégé system, but the result was an increased European presence in Morocco—in the form of advisors, doctors, businessmen, adventurers, and even missionaries. More than half of the Makhzen's expenditures went abroad to pay war indemnities and buy weapons, military equipment, and manufactured goods.
In June 1904, after a failed attempt to impose a flat tax, France bailed out the already indebted Makhzen with 62.5 million franks, guaranteed by a portion of customs revenue. In the 1890s, the French administration and military in Algiers called for the annexation of the Touat, the Gourara and the Tidikelt, a complex that had been part of the Moroccan Empire for many centuries prior to the arrival of the French in Algeria.
From 1902 to 1909, Morocco's trade deficit increased 14 million francs annually, and the Moroccan rial depreciated 25% from 1896 to 1906.
"Spain and Her Moroccan Protectorate, 1898–1927," Journal of Contemporary History 10 ( April 1975): 301–22. Pennell, C.
By 1900, Morocco was the scene of multiple local wars started by pretenders to the sultanate, by bankruptcy of the treasury, and by multiple tribal revolts.
From 1902 to 1909, Morocco's trade deficit increased 14 million francs annually, and the Moroccan rial depreciated 25% from 1896 to 1906.
Germany was outmaneuvered diplomatically, and France took full control of Morocco. Morocco experienced a famine from 1903 to 1907, as well as insurrections led by El-Rogui (Bou Hmara) and Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni.
==External links== A short history of Morocco [http://www.saharadesertkingdom.com/] timeline from Worldstatesmen Early Twentiethth Century Timelines: Moroccan crises, 1903–1914 The History of Morocco Historical map of Morocco – c.
In June 1904, after a failed attempt to impose a flat tax, France bailed out the already indebted Makhzen with 62.5 million franks, guaranteed by a portion of customs revenue. In the 1890s, the French administration and military in Algiers called for the annexation of the Touat, the Gourara and the Tidikelt, a complex that had been part of the Moroccan Empire for many centuries prior to the arrival of the French in Algeria.
The British acceded to any French designs in Morocco in the Entente Cordiale of 1904.
Germany attempted to counter the growing French influence, leading to the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905–1906, and the Second Moroccan Crisis of 1911.
The Kaiser's dramatic intervention in Morocco in March 1905 in support of Moroccan independence became a turning point on the road to the First World War.
From 1902 to 1909, Morocco's trade deficit increased 14 million francs annually, and the Moroccan rial depreciated 25% from 1896 to 1906.
The international Algeciras Conference of 1906 formalized France's "special position" and entrusted policing of Morocco jointly to France and Spain.
Germany was outmaneuvered diplomatically, and France took full control of Morocco. Morocco experienced a famine from 1903 to 1907, as well as insurrections led by El-Rogui (Bou Hmara) and Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni.
Abd al-Hafid wrested the throne from his brother Abd al-Aziz in the Hafidiya (1907-1908) coup d'état. === French and Spanish protectorate (1912–1956) === In 1907, the French took the murder of Émile Mauchamp in Marrakesh as a pretext to invade Oujda in the east, as they took an uprising against their appropriation of customs revenue in Casablanca as an opportunity to bombard and invade that city in the west.
From 1902 to 1909, Morocco's trade deficit increased 14 million francs annually, and the Moroccan rial depreciated 25% from 1896 to 1906.
Germany attempted to counter the growing French influence, leading to the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905–1906, and the Second Moroccan Crisis of 1911.
Morocco became a French protectorate through the Treaty of Fez in 1912. ==European influence (c.
The Agadir Crisis increased tensions among the powerful European countries, and resulted in the Treaty of Fez (signed on 30 March 1912), which made Morocco a protectorate of France.
A second treaty signed by the French and Spanish heads of state, Spain was granted a Zone of influence in northern and southern Morocco on 27 November 1912.
The treaty of Fez triggered the 1912 Fez riots.
Since the kingdom's independence in 1956, and particularly after Hassan II's 1973 Moroccanization policies, the European element has largely departed. === Opposition to European control === Led by Abd el-Krim, the independent Republic of the Rif existed from 1921 to 1926, based in the central part of the Rif (in the Spanish Protectorate), while also extending, for some months, to some parts of the tribal lands of the Ghomara, the Eastern Rif, Jbala, the Ouergha valley and the north of Taza.
After proclaiming independence on 18 September 1921, the polity developed state and governing institutions such as tax collection, law enforcement and the organisation of an army.
By the Tangier Protocol signed in December 1923, Tangier received special status and became an international zone, although, during World War II, it was occupied from 1940 to 1945 by Francoist Spain. The treaties nominally assured Morocco of its legal status as a sovereign state, with the sultan as its figurehead.
However, since 1925 the Spanish and French troops managed to quell the resistance and Abd el-Krim surrendered in May 1926. In December 1934, a small group of nationalists, members of the newly formed Comité d'Action Marocaine, or Moroccan Action Committee (CAM), proposed a Plan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as envisaged by the Treaty of Fez, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of representative councils.
Since the kingdom's independence in 1956, and particularly after Hassan II's 1973 Moroccanization policies, the European element has largely departed. === Opposition to European control === Led by Abd el-Krim, the independent Republic of the Rif existed from 1921 to 1926, based in the central part of the Rif (in the Spanish Protectorate), while also extending, for some months, to some parts of the tribal lands of the Ghomara, the Eastern Rif, Jbala, the Ouergha valley and the north of Taza.
However, since 1925 the Spanish and French troops managed to quell the resistance and Abd el-Krim surrendered in May 1926. In December 1934, a small group of nationalists, members of the newly formed Comité d'Action Marocaine, or Moroccan Action Committee (CAM), proposed a Plan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as envisaged by the Treaty of Fez, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of representative councils.
The French regime also faced the opposition of the tribes — when the Berber were required to come under the jurisdiction of French courts in 1930, it increased support for the independence movement. Many Moroccan Goumiers, or indigenous soldiers in the French army, assisted the Allies in both World War I and World War II.
However, since 1925 the Spanish and French troops managed to quell the resistance and Abd el-Krim surrendered in May 1926. In December 1934, a small group of nationalists, members of the newly formed Comité d'Action Marocaine, or Moroccan Action Committee (CAM), proposed a Plan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as envisaged by the Treaty of Fez, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of representative councils.
The CAM was reconstituted as a nationalist political party to gain mass support for more radical demands, but the French suppressed the party in 1937. Nationalist political parties, which subsequently arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for Moroccan independence on declarations such as the Atlantic Charter, a joint United States-British statement that set forth, among other things, the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live.
By the Tangier Protocol signed in December 1923, Tangier received special status and became an international zone, although, during World War II, it was occupied from 1940 to 1945 by Francoist Spain. The treaties nominally assured Morocco of its legal status as a sovereign state, with the sultan as its figurehead.
In January 1944, the Istiqlal (Independence) Party, which subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement, released a manifesto demanding full independence, national reunification, and a democratic constitution.
By the Tangier Protocol signed in December 1923, Tangier received special status and became an international zone, although, during World War II, it was occupied from 1940 to 1945 by Francoist Spain. The treaties nominally assured Morocco of its legal status as a sovereign state, with the sultan as its figurehead.
On 10 April 1947, Sultan Muhammad V delivered a momentous speech in Tangier appealing for the independence and territorial unity of Morocco, having traveled from French Morocco and through Spanish Morocco to reach the Tangier International Zone.
The résidence, supported by French economic interests and vigorously backed by most of the colons, adamantly refused to consider even reforms short of independence.In December 1952, a riot broke out in Casablanca over the assassination of the Tunisian labor leader Farhat Hached; this event marked a watershed in relations between Moroccan political parties and French authorities.
Atlantides, 1952. Woolman, David.
In the aftermath of the rioting, the residency outlawed the new Moroccan Communist Party and the Istiqlal Party. France's exile of the highly respected Sultan Mohammed V to Madagascar on Eid al-Adha of 1953, and his replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa, sparked active opposition to the French protectorate both from nationalists and those who saw the sultan as a religious leader.
1830 – 1956)== The successful Portuguese efforts to control the Atlantic coast in the 15th century did not affect the interior of Morocco.
Since the kingdom's independence in 1956, and particularly after Hassan II's 1973 Moroccanization policies, the European element has largely departed. === Opposition to European control === Led by Abd el-Krim, the independent Republic of the Rif existed from 1921 to 1926, based in the central part of the Rif (in the Spanish Protectorate), while also extending, for some months, to some parts of the tribal lands of the Ghomara, the Eastern Rif, Jbala, the Ouergha valley and the north of Taza.
In February 1956, Morocco acquired limited home rule.
Further negotiations for full independence culminated in the French-Moroccan Agreement signed in Paris on 2 March 1956. On 7 April 1956, France officially relinquished its protectorate in Morocco.
The internationalized city of Tangier was reintegrated with the signing of the Tangier Protocol on 29 October 1956.
The abolition of the Spanish protectorate and the recognition of Moroccan independence by Spain were negotiated separately and made final in the Joint Declaration of April 1956.
Through this agreement with Spain in 1956 and another in 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored.
He assumed the monarchy in 1957. ===Reign of Hassan II (1961–1999)=== Mohammed V's son Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961.
Through this agreement with Spain in 1956 and another in 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored.
He assumed the monarchy in 1957. ===Reign of Hassan II (1961–1999)=== Mohammed V's son Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961.
Aided by an advisory council, he drew up a new constitution, which was approved overwhelmingly in a December 1962 referendum.
In July 1971 and again in August 1972, the regime was challenged by two attempted military coups. After neighbouring Algeria's 1962 independence from France, border skirmishes in the Tindouf area of south-western Algeria escalated in 1963 into what is known as the Sand War.
Under its provisions, the king remained the central figure in the executive branch of the government, but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, and an independent judiciary was guaranteed. In May 1963, legislative elections took place for the first time, and the royalist coalition secured a small plurality of seats.
In July 1971 and again in August 1972, the regime was challenged by two attempted military coups. After neighbouring Algeria's 1962 independence from France, border skirmishes in the Tindouf area of south-western Algeria escalated in 1963 into what is known as the Sand War.
However, following a period of political upheaval in June 1965, Hassan II assumed full legislative and executive powers under a "state of exception," which remained in effect until 1970.
Rebels in the Rif: Abd-el-Krim and the Rif Rebellion (Stanford UP, 1967) ===In French=== David Bensoussan, Il était une fois le Maroc : témoignages du passé judéo-marocain, Éd.
However, following a period of political upheaval in June 1965, Hassan II assumed full legislative and executive powers under a "state of exception," which remained in effect until 1970.
The fossilized bones of a 400,000-year-old early human ancestor were discovered in Salé in 1971.
In July 1971 and again in August 1972, the regime was challenged by two attempted military coups. After neighbouring Algeria's 1962 independence from France, border skirmishes in the Tindouf area of south-western Algeria escalated in 1963 into what is known as the Sand War.
In July 1971 and again in August 1972, the regime was challenged by two attempted military coups. After neighbouring Algeria's 1962 independence from France, border skirmishes in the Tindouf area of south-western Algeria escalated in 1963 into what is known as the Sand War.
Since the kingdom's independence in 1956, and particularly after Hassan II's 1973 Moroccanization policies, the European element has largely departed. === Opposition to European control === Led by Abd el-Krim, the independent Republic of the Rif existed from 1921 to 1926, based in the central part of the Rif (in the Spanish Protectorate), while also extending, for some months, to some parts of the tribal lands of the Ghomara, the Eastern Rif, Jbala, the Ouergha valley and the north of Taza.
The conflict ended after Organisation of African Unity mediation, with no territorial changes. On 3 March 1973, Hassan II announced the policy of Moroccanization, in which state-held assets, agricultural lands, and businesses that were more than 50 percent foreign-owned—and especially French-owned—were transferred to political loyalists and high-ranking military officers.
The king had dispatched Moroccan troops to the Sinai front after the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli War in October 1973.
A UN visiting mission reported in October 1975 that an overwhelming majority of the Saharan people desired independence.
"Spain and Her Moroccan Protectorate, 1898–1927," Journal of Contemporary History 10 ( April 1975): 301–22. Pennell, C.
Spain also announced that it was opening independence talks with the Algerian-backed Saharan independence movement known as the Polisario Front. In early 1976, Spain ceded the administration of the Western Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania.
In August 1979, after suffering military losses, Mauritania renounced its claim to Western Sahara and signed a peace treaty with the Polisario.
Morocco then annexed the entire territory and, in 1985 built a 2,500-kilometer sand berm around three-quarters of Western Sahara. In 1988, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on a United Nations (UN) peace plan, and a cease-fire and settlement plan went into effect in 1991.
A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Morocco then annexed the entire territory and, in 1985 built a 2,500-kilometer sand berm around three-quarters of Western Sahara. In 1988, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on a United Nations (UN) peace plan, and a cease-fire and settlement plan went into effect in 1991.
Gradual political reforms in the 1990s culminated in the constitutional reform of 1996, which created a new bicameral legislature with expanded, although still limited, powers.
The bones of several very early Homo sapiens were excavated at Jebel Irhoud in 1991, these were dated using modern techniques in 2017 and found to be at least 300,000 years old, making them the oldest examples of Homo Sapiens discovered anywhere in the world.
Morocco then annexed the entire territory and, in 1985 built a 2,500-kilometer sand berm around three-quarters of Western Sahara. In 1988, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on a United Nations (UN) peace plan, and a cease-fire and settlement plan went into effect in 1991.
Gradual political reforms in the 1990s culminated in the constitutional reform of 1996, which created a new bicameral legislature with expanded, although still limited, powers.
Elections for the Chamber of Representatives were held in 1997, reportedly marred by irregularities. ===Reign of Mohammed VI (since 1999)=== With the death of King Hassan II of Morocco in 1999, the more liberal Crown Prince Sidi Mohammed took the throne, assuming the title Mohammed VI.
International observers regarded the elections as free and fair, noting the absence of the irregularities that had plagued the 1997 elections.
Elections for the Chamber of Representatives were held in 1997, reportedly marred by irregularities. ===Reign of Mohammed VI (since 1999)=== With the death of King Hassan II of Morocco in 1999, the more liberal Crown Prince Sidi Mohammed took the throne, assuming the title Mohammed VI.
Also in 2003, Berber-language instruction was introduced in primary schools, prior to introducing it at all educational levels. In March 2000, women's groups organized demonstrations in Rabat proposing reforms to the legal status of women in the country.
Morocco Since 1830: A History, New York University Press, 2000.
He also established a commission to compensate families of missing political activists and others subjected to arbitrary detention. In September 2002, new legislative elections were held, and the Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP) won a plurality.
Although a counter-demonstration attracted 200,000 to 400,000 participants, the movement was influential on King Mohammed, and he enacted a new Mudawana, or family law, in early 2004, meeting some of the demands of women's rights activists. In July 2002, a crisis broke out with Spain over a small, uninhabited island lying just less than 200 meters from the Moroccan coast, named Toura or Leila by Moroccans and Perejil by Spain.
In May 2003, in honor of the birth of a son, the king ordered the release of 9,000 prisoners and the reduction of 38,000 sentences.
Also in 2003, Berber-language instruction was introduced in primary schools, prior to introducing it at all educational levels. In March 2000, women's groups organized demonstrations in Rabat proposing reforms to the legal status of women in the country.
It was one of the first Arab and Islamic states to denounce the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States. In May 2003, Islamist suicide bombers simultaneously struck a series of sites in Casablanca, killing 45 and injuring more than 100 others.
Although a counter-demonstration attracted 200,000 to 400,000 participants, the movement was influential on King Mohammed, and he enacted a new Mudawana, or family law, in early 2004, meeting some of the demands of women's rights activists. In July 2002, a crisis broke out with Spain over a small, uninhabited island lying just less than 200 meters from the Moroccan coast, named Toura or Leila by Moroccans and Perejil by Spain.
Additional arrests followed in June 2004.
The agreement had been signed in 2004 along with a similar agreement with the European Union, Morocco's main trade partner. ==See also== History of North Africa Imperial cities of Morocco List of Kings of Morocco Politics of Morocco History of cities in Morocco: * Casablanca history and timeline * Fez history and timeline * Marrakesh history and timeline * Rabat history and timeline * Tangier history and timeline ==Notes== ==Bibliography== Abun-Nasr, Jamil M.
On 1 January 2006, a comprehensive bilateral free trade agreement between the United States and Morocco took effect.
In 2007, small perforated seashell beads were discovered in Taforalt that are 82,000 years old, making them the earliest known evidence of personal adornment found anywhere in the world. In Mesolithic times, between 20,000 and 5000 years ago, the geography of Morocco resembled a savanna more than the present arid landscape.
Morocco: From Empire to Independence, Oneworld Publications, 2013.
The bones of several very early Homo sapiens were excavated at Jebel Irhoud in 1991, these were dated using modern techniques in 2017 and found to be at least 300,000 years old, making them the oldest examples of Homo Sapiens discovered anywhere in the world.
Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State (Stanford UP, 2019).
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