At the age of 70, he died at Kartarpur, Punjab of modern-day Pakistan. ===Durrani and Maratha Empire=== In 1749, the Mughal ruler was induced to cede Sindh, the Punjab region and the important trans Indus River to Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, in order to save his capital from Afghan attack.
Leaving his second son Timur Shah to safeguard his interests, Ahmad Shah left India to return to Afghanistan. In 1751–52, Ahamdiya treaty was signed between the Marathas and Mughals, when Balaji Bajirao was the Peshwa.
He sacked Delhi in 1757 but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control of the city as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir.
Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the Maratha Confederacy. In 1758, the Maratha Empire's general Raghunath Rao attacked and conquered Punjab, frontier regions and Kashmir and drove out Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the Maratha Confederacy. In 1758, the Maratha Empire's general Raghunath Rao attacked and conquered Punjab, frontier regions and Kashmir and drove out Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali.
In 1759, the Marathas and its allies won the Battle of Lahore, defeating the Durranis, hence, Lahore, Dera Ghazi Khan, Multan, Peshawar, Kashmir, and other subahs on the south eastern side of Afghanistan's border fell under the Maratha rule. Ahmad Shah declared a jihad (or Islamic holy war) against the Marathas, and warriors from various Afghan tribes joined his army, including the Baloch people under the command of Khan of Kalat Mir Nasir I of Kalat.
Early skirmishes were followed by decisive victory for the Afghans against the much larger Maratha garrisons in Northwest India and by 1759 Ahmad Shah and his army reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas.
By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of Sadashivrao Bhau.
The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies was waged along a twelve-kilometer front.
In 1762, Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the Sikhs.
However, in the period from 1762 to 1799, Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be coming into their own.
However, in the period from 1762 to 1799, Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be coming into their own.
The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the disbandment of the Sikh Khalsa Army by the time of coronation of Ranjit Singh in 1801, creating a unified political state.
In the first half of the 19th century, the region was appropriated by the East India Company, followed, after 1857, by 90 years of direct British rule, and ending with the creation of Pakistan in 1947, through the efforts, among others, of its future national poet Allama Iqbal and its founder, Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity, 1857–1947, Oxford 2010, Sidky, H.
But the organization declined towards the end of the 19th century. In 1885, the Indian National Congress was founded as a forum, which later became a party, to promote a nationalist cause.
Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation in the Indus Valley.
Their influence spread rapidly among other like minded Hindus – they called it Hindu nationalism – and it became a cause of serious concern for Muslims. However, Jinnah did not join the League until 1913, when the party changed its platform to one of Indian independence, as a reaction against the British decision to reverse the 1905 Partition of Bengal, which the League regarded it as a betrayal of the Bengali Muslims.
Eventually, the Muslims feared that the Hindu majority would seek to suppress the rights of Muslims in the region following the departure of the British. === Muslim League === The All-India Muslim League was founded by Shaiiq-e-Mustafa in 30 December 1906, in the aftermath of division of Bengal, on the sidelines of the annual All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Shahbagh, Dhaka East Bengal.
The Muslim League saw this British decision as partial to Hindus. In 1907, a vocal group of Hindu hard-liners within the Indian National Congress movement separated from it and started to pursue a pro-Hindu movement openly.
Their influence spread rapidly among other like minded Hindus – they called it Hindu nationalism – and it became a cause of serious concern for Muslims. However, Jinnah did not join the League until 1913, when the party changed its platform to one of Indian independence, as a reaction against the British decision to reverse the 1905 Partition of Bengal, which the League regarded it as a betrayal of the Bengali Muslims.
Jinnah became its president in 1916, and negotiated the Lucknow Pact with the Congress leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by which Congress conceded the principle of separate electorates and weighted representation for the Muslim community.
However, Jinnah broke with the Congress in 1920 when the Congress leader, Mohandas Gandhi, launched a law violating Non-Cooperation Movement against the British, which a temperamentally law-abiding barrister Jinnah disapproved of.
In 1927, the British proposed a constitution for India as recommended by the Simon Commission, but they failed to reconcile all parties.
Jinnah also became convinced that the Congress would renounce its support for separate electorates for Muslims, which indeed it did in 1928.
The British then turned the matter over to the League and the Congress, and in 1928 an All-Parties Congress was convened in Delhi.
During this time in 1930, notable writer and poet, Muhammad Iqbal called for a separate and autonomous nation-state, who in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia. The name of the nation-state was coined by the Cambridge University's political science student and Muslim nationalist Rahmat Ali, and was published on 28 January 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never.
During this time in 1930, notable writer and poet, Muhammad Iqbal called for a separate and autonomous nation-state, who in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia. The name of the nation-state was coined by the Cambridge University's political science student and Muslim nationalist Rahmat Ali, and was published on 28 January 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never.
In 1935, the British government proposed to hand over substantial power to elected Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in 1937.
In 1935, the British government proposed to hand over substantial power to elected Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in 1937.
Savarkar at the 19th session of the famous Hindu nationalist party Hindu Mahasabha in 1937.
The meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of 1937 in the Muslim majority provinces.
Mohammad Ali Jinnah declared 22 December 1939, a "Day of Deliverance" for Indian Muslims.
The resolution was moved in the general session by Shere-Bangla Bengali nationalist, AKF Haq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, supported by Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and other leaders and was adopted on 23 March 1940.
Islamic scholars debated over whether it was possible for the proposed Pakistan to truly become an Islamic state. While the Congress' top leadership had been in prison following the 1942 Quit India Movement, there was intense debate among Indian Muslims over the creation of a separate homeland.
According to this theory the safety of India's Muslim minority would be ensured by turning the Hindu minority in the proposed Pakistan into a 'hostage' population who would be visited by retributive violence if Muslims in India were harmed. In the Constituent Assembly elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 425 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (polling 89.2% of total votes).
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the major powers: politics of a divided subcontinent (1975), by a Pakistani scholar; Covers 1946 to 1974. Dixit, J.
In the first half of the 19th century, the region was appropriated by the East India Company, followed, after 1857, by 90 years of direct British rule, and ending with the creation of Pakistan in 1947, through the efforts, among others, of its future national poet Allama Iqbal and its founder, Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Mountbatten later confessed that he would most probably have sabotaged the creation of Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis. In early 1947 the British had announced their desire to grant India its independence by June 1948.
Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to partition India along religious lines. === Independence from the British Empire === On 14 August 1947 Pakistan gained independence.
Political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmed says that although Muslims started the violence in Punjab, by the end of 1947 more Muslims had been killed by Hindus and Sikhs in East Punjab than the number of Hindus and Sikhs who had been killed by Muslims in West Punjab. More than ten million people migrated across the new borders and between 200,000–2,000,000 people died in the spate of communal violence in the Punjab in what some scholars have described as a 'retributive genocide' between the religions.
It was led by Mufti Nadimul Quamar Ahmed. When the state of Pakistan was formed in 1947, its two regions, East Pakistan (also called East Bengal) and West Pakistan, were split along cultural, geographical, and linguistic lines.
Pakistan's Foreign Policy, 1947–2012: A Concise History (3rd ed.
Mountbatten later confessed that he would most probably have sabotaged the creation of Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis. In early 1947 the British had announced their desire to grant India its independence by June 1948.
On 23 February 1948, the Government of Pakistan ordained Urdu as the sole national language, sparking extensive protests among the Bengali-speaking majority of East Pakistan.
In the 1950s, Pakistan bought back the region. ===Kabul Shahi=== The so-called Shahi dynasties ruled the Kabul Valley and Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.
The two governments agreed to repatriate abducted women and thousands of Hindu, Sikh and Muslim women were repatriated to their families in the 1950s.
The students of the University of Dhaka and other political activists defied the law and organised a protest on 21 February 1952.
On 17 November 1999, UNESCO declared 21 February International Mother Language Day for the whole world to celebrate, in tribute to the Language Movement and the ethno-linguistic rights of people around the world. ===Politics: 1954–1971=== The 1952 events caused the people of East Pakistan to abandon the Muslim League.
On 17 November 1999, UNESCO declared 21 February International Mother Language Day for the whole world to celebrate, in tribute to the Language Movement and the ethno-linguistic rights of people around the world. ===Politics: 1954–1971=== The 1952 events caused the people of East Pakistan to abandon the Muslim League.
In East Pakistan's 1954 provincial elections, the League captured only 7 out of the 390 seats.
After years of conflict, the central government relented and granted official status to the Bengali language in 1956.
Until 1956, when the state declared that both Bengali and Urdu would be state languages, the language movement continued. Great differences began developing between the two wings of Pakistan.
Because Bengalis did not have a tradition of military service in their families, it was hard to recruit Bengali officers. By the middle of the 1960s the East Pakistani elite concluded that the protection of their interests lay in autonomy.
Abdul Momen Khan, who was governor in the 1962-1968 period, persecuted opposition and censored media.
The regime became more unpopular during 1965, in the year of a war between India and Pakistan.
War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh (1991) Spear, Percival (1990) [First published 1965].
. Thapar, Romila (1990) [First published 1965].
East Pakistanis felt they had not been protected by the army from a possible Indian invasion. In 1966, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the leader of the Awami League, proclaimed a 6-point plan titled Our Charter of Survival at a national conference of opposition political parties at Lahore, in which he demanded self-government and considerable political, economic and defence autonomy for East Pakistan in a Pakistani federation with a weak central government.
The six points for a confederation were more extreme than previous calls for autonomy. In early 1968, the Agartala Conspiracy Case was filed against Mujib with the allegation that the accused was conspiring for the secession of East Pakistan with Indian aid.
Ayub Khan resigned in March 1969 and his position was taken by General Yahya Khan.
He announced that elections would be held in 1970 and political organisation would be permitted.
Since then, the country has experienced both civilian-democratic and military rule, resulting in periods of significant economic and military growth as well those of instability; significant during the latter, was the secession, in 1971, of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh. == History by region == == Prehistory == === Paleolithic period === Riwat is a Paleolithic site in upper Punjab.
The speech is considered a key moment in the War of Liberation, and is remembered for the phrase, ::"Our struggle this time is a struggle for our freedom, our struggle this time is a struggle for our independence...." ===Formal Declaration of Separation=== In the early hours of 26 March 1971, a military crackdown by the Pakistani Army began.
The world press reports from late March 1971 also make sure that Bangladesh's declaration of independence by Bangabandhu was widely reported throughout the world.
They recruited Biharis and Bengalis who did not support the separation of East Pakistan. India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on North India.
With air supremacy achieved in the eastern theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India, Pakistan surrendered in Dacca on 16 December 1971. ==Post 1971 history== ===Zulfikar Ali Bhutto=== In 1972 the leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power and in 1973 Pakistan's elected parliament promulgated the 1973 Constitution which proclaimed that no Pakistani law could contradict Islamic laws from the Quran and Sunnah.
With air supremacy achieved in the eastern theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India, Pakistan surrendered in Dacca on 16 December 1971. ==Post 1971 history== ===Zulfikar Ali Bhutto=== In 1972 the leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power and in 1973 Pakistan's elected parliament promulgated the 1973 Constitution which proclaimed that no Pakistani law could contradict Islamic laws from the Quran and Sunnah.
With air supremacy achieved in the eastern theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India, Pakistan surrendered in Dacca on 16 December 1971. ==Post 1971 history== ===Zulfikar Ali Bhutto=== In 1972 the leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power and in 1973 Pakistan's elected parliament promulgated the 1973 Constitution which proclaimed that no Pakistani law could contradict Islamic laws from the Quran and Sunnah.
No human skeletons of this age have yet been found. === Neolithic period === Mehrgarh is an important neolithic site discovered in 1974, which shows early evidence of farming and herding, and dentistry.
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the major powers: politics of a divided subcontinent (1975), by a Pakistani scholar; Covers 1946 to 1974. Dixit, J.
Bhutto faced vigorous opposition which united under the banner of Nizam e Mustafa (Rule of the Prophet) and demanded the establishment of an Islamic state. ===Zia-ul-Haq era=== In 1977 Bhutto was deposed in a bloodless coup by General Zia-ul-Haq, who became the country's third military president.
Zia-ul-Haq committed himself to the establishment of Sharia law in Pakistan. ===Restoration of democracy=== With the death of President Zia-ul-Haq in 1988, new general elections saw the victory of PPP led by Benazir Bhutto who was elevated as the country's first female Prime Minister of Pakistan.
On 23 March 1988, Pakistan conducted its first nuclear tests and became the seventh in the world, second in South Asia and the first among the Muslim majority countries to have developed nuclear bombs.
In 1990 she was dismissed by President Ishaq Khan on charges of corruption. New general elections saw the coming of Pakistan Muslim League (N) for the first time with Nawaz Sharif as the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
However, he was dismissed in 1993 with new general elections taking place the same year.
The 1997 new general elections saw the return of PML(N). Tensions between Pakistan and India flared up as India conducted its nuclear tests.
On 17 November 1999, UNESCO declared 21 February International Mother Language Day for the whole world to celebrate, in tribute to the Language Movement and the ethno-linguistic rights of people around the world. ===Politics: 1954–1971=== The 1952 events caused the people of East Pakistan to abandon the Muslim League.
Tensions were to flare up again in the 1999 Kargil War.
Tension between the military and government led to the 1999 Pakistani coup. ===Musharaf era=== Appointing himself President after the resignation of President Rafiq Tarar, Musharraf held nationwide general elections in 2002 to transfer the executive powers to newly elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali, who was succeeded in the 2004 by Shaukat Aziz.
Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favor of the Indus Valley, where a new civilization was in the early stages of development. ===Indus Valley Civilisation=== The Bronze Age in the Indus Valley began around 3300 BCE with the Indus Valley Civilization.
Tension between the military and government led to the 1999 Pakistani coup. ===Musharaf era=== Appointing himself President after the resignation of President Rafiq Tarar, Musharraf held nationwide general elections in 2002 to transfer the executive powers to newly elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali, who was succeeded in the 2004 by Shaukat Aziz.
Tension between the military and government led to the 1999 Pakistani coup. ===Musharaf era=== Appointing himself President after the resignation of President Rafiq Tarar, Musharraf held nationwide general elections in 2002 to transfer the executive powers to newly elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali, who was succeeded in the 2004 by Shaukat Aziz.
But he resigned from office in 2008. ===Democracy restored=== During the election campaign of 2007, Benazir Bhutto was assassinated which led to a series of important political developments including the left-wing alliance led by the PPP which saw its return for the third time.
. Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama (2007): The Political Crisis of Pakistan in 2007 – EPU Research Papers: Issue 08/07, Stadtschlaining Esposito, John L.
But he resigned from office in 2008. ===Democracy restored=== During the election campaign of 2007, Benazir Bhutto was assassinated which led to a series of important political developments including the left-wing alliance led by the PPP which saw its return for the third time.
online 2nd 2009 edition Cohen, Stephen P.
Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity, 1857–1947, Oxford 2010, Sidky, H.
Explaining Pakistan’s foreign policy: escaping India (Routledge, 2011). Sattar, Abdul.
In 2012 Prime Minister of Pakistan Yosuf Raza Gillani was dismissed by the Supreme Court on charges of corruption.
The Oxford Companion to Pakistani History (Oxford University Press, 2012) 558 pp.
General elections held in 2013 marked the return of PML(N) with Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif assuming the leadership of the country for the third time in its history.
Biagi 2017 - Uneasy Riders: With Alexander and Nearchus from Pattala to Rhambakia.
In 2017, Sharif was disqualified from holding the office of Prime Minister and was sentenced to ten years of imprisonment by the Supreme Court after the leak of Panama Papers Case.
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