This was due to its prosperity during the first two centuries (1540–1740) while contributing to colonial growth; the placing of extensive regional judicial authority (Real Audiencia) within its jurisdiction; and the pivotal role it played at the height of the Spanish Empire—the first modern global empire. In 1744, Bishop Francisco Javier de Luna Victoria y Castro established the College of San Ignacio de Loyola, and on June 3, 1749 founded La Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Javier.
This was due to its prosperity during the first two centuries (1540–1740) while contributing to colonial growth; the placing of extensive regional judicial authority (Real Audiencia) within its jurisdiction; and the pivotal role it played at the height of the Spanish Empire—the first modern global empire. In 1744, Bishop Francisco Javier de Luna Victoria y Castro established the College of San Ignacio de Loyola, and on June 3, 1749 founded La Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Javier.
The History of Panama, Greenwood Publishers, 2006. Sweetman, Jack; "American Naval History: An Illustrated Chronology of the US Navy And Marine Corps, 1775 – present".
TAREAS web Simón Bolívar, Carta de Jamaica (Contestación de un Americano meridional a un Caballero de esta Isla), Kingston, septiembre 6, 1815.
This uneasy relationship between Panama and Bogotá would persist for a century. ==Independence== In 1819, New Granada finally achieved freedom from Spain.
Diametrically, inhabitants of Veraguas saw their region as a bastion of loyalty and morality, while Azuero was a hotbed for vice and treason. The tension between the two regions peaked when the first printing press arrived in Panama in 1820.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height of the Empire, no other region would prove of more strategic and economic importance. On November 10, 1821, in a special event called Grito de La Villa de Los Santos, the residents of the Azuero declared their separation from the Spanish Empire.
Then, timing the action with the rest of the Central American isthmus, Panama declared independence in 1821 and joined the southern federation.
In Veraguas, however, there remained a strict sense of submission to the Spanish Crown. ===José de Fábrega=== On November 10, 1821, in a special event called Grito de La Villa de Los Santos, the residents of the Azuero declared their separation from the Spanish Empire.
This gradual process had begun when Fábrega was left in charge by the former Governor General, Juan de la Cruz Mourgeón, who had left the isthmus on a campaign in Quito in October 1821.
They celebrate their independence from Spain on November 28, 1821, and separation from Colombia on November 3, 1903, which is referred to as "Separation Day". === Reaction to the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty === The reaction to the treaty in the US was generally positive, public support for building a canal (as the treaty effectively guaranteed) having already been high.
sentiment in PANAMA 1825–1985: A Brief Summary My-Panama-Live: Panama today - Articles containing video clips Historio de Panamo
After order was restored, in early 1831 Panama rejoined what was left of the republic, forming a territory slightly larger than present Panama and Colombia combined, which by then had adopted the name Republic of New Granada.
The alliance lasted 70 years and proved precarious. == 19th century == When separation of Venezuela and Ecuador were being established, in 1831 the isthmus again reiterated its independence, now under the same General Alzuru as supreme military commander.
During this war, in November 1840, the isthmus led by General Tomás Herrera, who assumed the title Superior Civil Chief, declared its independence as did multiple other local authorities.
In the 1840s, two decades after the Monroe Doctrine declared US intentions to be the dominant anti-European imperial power in the Western Hemisphere, North American and French interests became excited about the prospects of constructing railroads and/or canals through Central America to quicken trans-oceanic travel.
The State of Panama took in March 1841 the name of 'Estado Libre del Istmo', or the Free State of the Isthmus.
The new state established external political and economic ties and by March 1841, had drawn up a constitution which included the possibility to rejoin New Granada, but only as a federal district.
Herrera's title was changed to Superior Chief of State in March 1841 and in June 1841 to President.
Reunification happened on December 31, 1841. In the end, the union (called United States of Colombia 1863–1886 and the Republic of Colombia since 1886) was made possible by the active participation of USA under the 1846 Bidlack Mallarino treaty until 1903.
Reunification happened on December 31, 1841. In the end, the union (called United States of Colombia 1863–1886 and the Republic of Colombia since 1886) was made possible by the active participation of USA under the 1846 Bidlack Mallarino treaty until 1903.
In 1846, the US and New Granada signed the Bidlack Mallarino Treaty, granting the US right of way across the Isthmus, and most significantly the power to intervene militarily, ensuring neutrality of the Isthmus, and guaranteeing New Granada sovereignty. The world's first transcontinental railroad, the Panama Railway, was completed in 1855 across the Isthmus from Aspinwall/Colón to Panama City.
During the war, there were at least three attempts by Panamanian Liberals to seize control of Panama and potentially achieve full autonomy, including one led by Liberal guerrillas like Belisario Porras and Victoriano Lorenzo, each of whom was suppressed by a collaboration of Conservative Colombian and US forces under the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty which had been in effect since 1846.
The derogatory term rabiblanco ("white tail") has been used for generations to refer to the usually Caucasian members of the elite families. In 1852, the isthmus adopted trial by jury in criminal cases and—30 years after abolition—would finally declare and enforce an end to slavery. == Pre-Columbian history == The earliest artifacts discovered in Panama include Paleo-Indians projectile points.
In 1846, the US and New Granada signed the Bidlack Mallarino Treaty, granting the US right of way across the Isthmus, and most significantly the power to intervene militarily, ensuring neutrality of the Isthmus, and guaranteeing New Granada sovereignty. The world's first transcontinental railroad, the Panama Railway, was completed in 1855 across the Isthmus from Aspinwall/Colón to Panama City.
INAC, Editorial Mariano Arosemena, 1995 Celestino Andrés Araúz y Patricia Pizzurno, El Panamá Hispano (1501–1821) Comisión Nacional del V Centenario –Encuentro de Dos Mundos- de España Diario La Prensa de Panamá, Panamá 1991. Justo Arosemena, El Estado Federal de Panamá, (febrero 1855).
In April, 1856 a conflict known as the Watermelon Riot occurred when a mob of angry Panamanians attacked a group of American travelers who used the Panama railroad to travel to and from the California gold rush after an American traveler stole a watermelon from a local fruit vendor.
The outbreak prompted the US to send troops in September, 1856 to protect the railroad stations.
Reunification happened on December 31, 1841. In the end, the union (called United States of Colombia 1863–1886 and the Republic of Colombia since 1886) was made possible by the active participation of USA under the 1846 Bidlack Mallarino treaty until 1903.
In 1519, the Spanish crown built a cobbled track joined the oceans, and by 1534, the Chagres River was dredged, facilitating traffic for two-thirds of the way. ===French start=== From 1882, Ferdinand de Lesseps started work on a canal.
The Republic of Colombia (1819–1830) or ‘Gran Colombia’ as it was called after 1886, roughly corresponded in territory to the former colonial administrative district Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819).
Reunification happened on December 31, 1841. In the end, the union (called United States of Colombia 1863–1886 and the Republic of Colombia since 1886) was made possible by the active participation of USA under the 1846 Bidlack Mallarino treaty until 1903.
By 1889, with engineering challenges caused by frequent landslides, slippage of equipment and mud, plus disease, the effort failed in bankruptcy.
A new company was formed in 1894 to recoup some of the losses of the original canal company. === US involvement === US President Theodore Roosevelt convinced US Congress to take on the abandoned works in 1902, while Colombia was in the midst of the Thousand Days' War.
A new company was formed in 1894 to recoup some of the losses of the original canal company. === US involvement === US President Theodore Roosevelt convinced US Congress to take on the abandoned works in 1902, while Colombia was in the midst of the Thousand Days' War.
In that zone, the US would build a canal, then administer, fortify, and defend it "in perpetuity". Roosevelt's explanation of the US role in the region was made clear throughout many speeches since 1902.
William Gorgas used techniques pioneered by Cuban physician Carlos Finley, to rid the area of yellow fever between 1902 and 1905.
Reunification happened on December 31, 1841. In the end, the union (called United States of Colombia 1863–1886 and the Republic of Colombia since 1886) was made possible by the active participation of USA under the 1846 Bidlack Mallarino treaty until 1903.
By September 1903, negotiations had all but broken down.
In return, Bunau-Varilla would become Panama's representative in Washington. Bunau-Varilla arranged for the Panama City fire department to stage a revolution against Colombia which officially began on November 3, 1903.
On November 13, 1903, after 57 years of policing Bogotá's interests, the US formally recognized the country of Panama. Less than three weeks later, on November 18, 1903, the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed between Frenchman Philippe Bunau-Varilla, who had promptly been appointed Panamanian ambassador to the United States, representing Panamanian interests, and the US Secretary of State John Hay.
Thus it enforced only that part of the treaty which was of interest to the US, namely, "it granted the US significant transit rights over the Panamanian isthmus". It is a common mistake to call the 1903 events ‘Panama’s independence from Colombia’.
They celebrate their independence from Spain on November 28, 1821, and separation from Colombia on November 3, 1903, which is referred to as "Separation Day". === Reaction to the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty === The reaction to the treaty in the US was generally positive, public support for building a canal (as the treaty effectively guaranteed) having already been high.
Gorgas' work in the sanitation of the Canal Zone and the cities of Panama and Colon eventually made him sought after internationally. The Panama Canal, the area supporting the Canal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama on December 31, 1999 in accordance with the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. ==Military coups and coalitions== From 1903 until 1968, Panama was a republic dominated by a commercially oriented oligarchy.
In July 2019, Laurentino “Nito” Cortizo of the Democratic Revolution Party (PRD) was sworn in as the new President of Panama, after winning the May 2019 presidential election. ==See also== List of heads of state of Panama Politics of Panama List of Royal Governors of Panama Spanish colonization of the Americas ==References== Theodore Roosevelt, Third Annual Message, December 7, 1903.
See: Independence from Spain and The 1903 Treaty and qualified independence [http://countrystudies.us/panama/8.htm ==Bibliography== Lafeber, Walter.
Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914; the existing 83-kilometer (50-mi.) lock canal is considered one of the world's great engineering triumphs.
William Gorgas used techniques pioneered by Cuban physician Carlos Finley, to rid the area of yellow fever between 1902 and 1905.
On January 5, 1909 the government of Rafael Reyes in Colombia signed and presented to its Congress a treaty that would officially recognize the loss of its former province, but the treaty was not ratified, due to popular and legislative opposition.
The Roosevelt administration proposed to Colombia that the US should control the canal in return for a $10 million payment and $250,000 annual payment that would begin in 1912.
Nevertheless, the Panamanian government, fearing the alternative, ratified the treaty. By the time the Canal opened in 1914, many Panamanians still questioned the validity of the treaty.
Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914; the existing 83-kilometer (50-mi.) lock canal is considered one of the world's great engineering triumphs.
Negotiations continued intermittently until a new treaty was signed on December 21, 1921 which formally accepted the independence of Panama. Roosevelt's policy to ‘walk softly and carry a big stick’, and the Canal Company's apartheid early on, have been much criticized.
The controversy surrounding the US's presence in Panama was a major issue in Panamanian politics throughout the following decades and revisions to the Hay—Bunau-Varilla Treaty in 1936 (Arias-Roosevelt/Hull-Alfaro Treaty) and 1955 (Remon-Eisenhower Treaty) both failed to adequately address the situation.
During the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge the oligarchy's political hegemony.
The controversy surrounding the US's presence in Panama was a major issue in Panamanian politics throughout the following decades and revisions to the Hay—Bunau-Varilla Treaty in 1936 (Arias-Roosevelt/Hull-Alfaro Treaty) and 1955 (Remon-Eisenhower Treaty) both failed to adequately address the situation.
The January 9, 1964 Martyrs' Day riots escalated tensions between the country and the US government over its long-term occupation of the Canal Zone.
Gorgas' work in the sanitation of the Canal Zone and the cities of Panama and Colon eventually made him sought after internationally. The Panama Canal, the area supporting the Canal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama on December 31, 1999 in accordance with the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. ==Military coups and coalitions== From 1903 until 1968, Panama was a republic dominated by a commercially oriented oligarchy.
4 US soldiers were killed as well. In October 1968, Dr.
In February 1974, following OPEC's model for oil, it attempted to form the Union of Banana Exporting Countries with the other Central American States to respond to the influence of these multinationals, but did not obtain their support.
The controversy would continue until the US agreed to hand over the Canal Zone wholly to Panama in the 1977 Torrijos-Carter Treaties. ===Construction=== The Panama Canal was built by the U.S.
Its policy promotes the emergence of a middle class and the representation of indigenous communities. On September 7, 1977, the Torrijos–Carter Treaties were signed by the Panamanian head of state Omar Torrijos and US President Jimmy Carter for the complete transfer of the Canal and the 14 US army bases from the US to Panama by 1999.
By then, General Manuel Noriega was firmly in control of both the PDF and the civilian government, and had created the Dignity Battalions to help suppress opposition. Despite undercover collaboration with US president Ronald Reagan on his Contra war in Nicaragua (including the Iran-Contra Affair), to deliver arms and drugs by airplane, relations between the United States and Panama worsened in the 1980s.
Certain portions of the Zone and increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over in the intervening years. ==Manuel Noriega regime (1983-1989)== Torrijos died in a mysterious plane crash on August 1, 1981.
Despite constitutional amendments in 1983, which appeared to proscribe a political role for the military, the Panama Defense Forces (PDF) continued to dominate political life behind a facade of civilian government.
Sevilla 1984. ==External links== World-statesmen.org: Panama World-statesmen.org: Colombia and Panama Skeptic-files.org: The Historical Basis of Anti-U.S.
In response to a domestic political crisis and an attack on the US embassy, the US froze economic and military aid to Panama in the summer of 1987.
Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987.
Tensions sharpened in February 1988 when Noriega was indicted in US courts for drug-trafficking.
In April 1988, Reagan invoked the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, freezing Panamanian Government assets in US banks, withholding fees for using the canal, and prohibiting payments by US agencies, firms, and individuals to the Noriega regime.
The country went into turmoil. National elections of May 1989 were marred by accusations of fraud from both sides.
An American Marine got lost in the former French quarter of Panama City, ran a roadblock, and was killed by Panamanian Police (which was a part of the Panamanian Military). === US invasion (1989) === By autumn 1989 the regime was barely clinging to power.
On December 27, Panama's Electoral Tribunal invalidated the Noriega regime's annulment of the May 1989 election and confirmed the victory of opposition candidates for president (Endara) and vice presidents (Guillermo Ford and Ricardo Arias Calderón). President Endara took office as the head of a four-party minority government, pledging to foster Panama's economic recovery, transform the Panamanian military into a police force under civilian control, and strengthen democratic institutions.
INAC, Editorial Mariano Arosemena, 1995 Celestino Andrés Araúz y Patricia Pizzurno, El Panamá Hispano (1501–1821) Comisión Nacional del V Centenario –Encuentro de Dos Mundos- de España Diario La Prensa de Panamá, Panamá 1991. Justo Arosemena, El Estado Federal de Panamá, (febrero 1855).
In 1992, he would have received 2.4% of the vote if there had been an election.
After an internationally monitored election campaign, Ernesto Pérez Balladares was sworn in as President on September 1, 1994. He ran as the candidate for a three-party coalition dominated by the Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD), the erstwhile political arm of the military dictatorship during the Torrijos and Norieiga years.
INAC, Editorial Mariano Arosemena, 1995 Celestino Andrés Araúz y Patricia Pizzurno, El Panamá Hispano (1501–1821) Comisión Nacional del V Centenario –Encuentro de Dos Mundos- de España Diario La Prensa de Panamá, Panamá 1991. Justo Arosemena, El Estado Federal de Panamá, (febrero 1855).
Editorial Mariano Arosemena, INAC, 1998. Alfredo Castillero Calvo, Conquista, Evangelización y Resistencia.
Gorgas' work in the sanitation of the Canal Zone and the cities of Panama and Colon eventually made him sought after internationally. The Panama Canal, the area supporting the Canal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama on December 31, 1999 in accordance with the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. ==Military coups and coalitions== From 1903 until 1968, Panama was a republic dominated by a commercially oriented oligarchy.
Its policy promotes the emergence of a middle class and the representation of indigenous communities. On September 7, 1977, the Torrijos–Carter Treaties were signed by the Panamanian head of state Omar Torrijos and US President Jimmy Carter for the complete transfer of the Canal and the 14 US army bases from the US to Panama by 1999.
His administration carried out economic reforms and often worked closely with the US on implementing the Canal treaties. On May 2, 1999, Mireya Moscoso, the widow of former President Arnulfo Arias Madrid, defeated PRD candidate Martín Torrijos, son of the late dictator.
Moscoso took office on September 1, 1999. During her administration, Moscoso tried to strengthen social programs, especially for child and youth development, protection, and general welfare.
Third Edition, Naval Institute Press, 2002. Tenenbaum, Barbara A.
presidency.ucsb.edu Lina Vega Abad, Un brindis por Panamá la Vieja, 17 de agosto de 2003; La Prernsa Web Patricia Pizzurno, Panamá en la encrucijada del mundo; No.
Encyclopedia of Latin American history and culture (1996). ===In Spanish=== Alarcón Núñez, Óscar, Panamá Siempre fue de Panamá, Planeta, 2003. Alberto Mckay L., La estructura del Estado panameño y sus raíces históricas.
The Moscoso administration was very supportive of the United States in combating international terrorism. In 2004, Martín Torrijos again ran for president and won the election.
116, enero – abril 2004.
The History of Panama, Greenwood Publishers, 2006. Sweetman, Jack; "American Naval History: An Illustrated Chronology of the US Navy And Marine Corps, 1775 – present".
In 2009, coservative supermarket magnate Ricardo Martinelli won a landslide victory in the presidential election and he succeeded president Martin Torrijos.
Five years later, President Martinelli was succeeded by Juan Carlos Varela, the winner of 2014 election.
Noriega served a 40-year sentence for drug trafficking before his eventual death on May 29, 2017. The US estimated the civilian death toll at 202, while the UN estimated 500 civilians dead and Americas Watch put the civilian death toll at 300. After the invasion, US President George H.
In July 2019, Laurentino “Nito” Cortizo of the Democratic Revolution Party (PRD) was sworn in as the new President of Panama, after winning the May 2019 presidential election. ==See also== List of heads of state of Panama Politics of Panama List of Royal Governors of Panama Spanish colonization of the Americas ==References== Theodore Roosevelt, Third Annual Message, December 7, 1903.
All text is taken from Wikipedia. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License .
Page generated on 2021-08-05