Shaky Colonialism: The 1746 Earthquake-Tsunami in Lima, Peru, and Its Long AftermathStay (2008) Wightman, Ann M.
From Rebellion to Independence in the Andes: Soundings from Southern Peru, 1750–1830.
Bourbon Peru, 1750–1824.
Shadows of Empire: The Indian Nobility of Cusco, 1750–1825.
(Colombia, Ecuador, Panamá and Venezuela were split off as the Viceroyalty of New Granada (Virreinato de Nueva Granada) in 1717; and Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay were set up as the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776). After Pizarro's death, there were numerous internal problems, and Spain finally sent Blasco Núñez Vela to be Peru's first viceroy in 1544.
From Subjects to Citizens: Honor, Gender, and Politics in Arequipa, Peru, 1780–1854.
Mirages of Transition: The Peruvian Altiplano, 1780–1930 (1996) Lamana, Gonzalo.
Smoldering Ashes: Cuzco and the Creation of Republican Peru, 1780–1840.
Paying the Price of Freedom: Family and Labor Among Lima's Slaves, 1800–1854.
This crisis proved favorable for the indigenous rebellion of Túpac Amaru II and determined the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1808, Napoleon invaded the Iberian Peninsula and took the king, Ferdinand VII, hostage.
Trials of Nation Making: Liberalism, Race, and Ethnicity in the Andes, 1810–1910.
Later in 1812, the Cadíz Cortes, the national legislative assembly of Spain, promulgated a liberal Constitution of Cadiz.
In Peru, the Creole rebellion of Huánuco arose in 1812 and the rebellion of Cuzco arose between 1814 and 1816.
In Peru, the Creole rebellion of Huánuco arose in 1812 and the rebellion of Cuzco arose between 1814 and 1816.
In Peru, the Creole rebellion of Huánuco arose in 1812 and the rebellion of Cuzco arose between 1814 and 1816.
San Martín, who had displaced the royalists of Chile after the Battle of Chacabuco, and who had disembarked in Paracas in 1819, led the military campaign of 4,200 soldiers.
The expedition, which included warships, was organized and financed by Chile which sailed from Valparaíso in August 1820.
The plebeian republic : the Huanta rebellion and the making of the Peruvian state, 1820–1850.
The nation declared independence from Spain in 1821, but consolidated only after the Battle of Ayacucho three years later. ==Pre-Columbian cultures== Hunting tools dating back to more than 11,000 years ago have been found inside the caves of Pachacamac, Telarmachay, Junin, and Lauricocha.
San Martin proclaimed the independence of Peru in Lima on 28 July 1821, with the words "...
San Martín received the title of "Protector of Peruvian Freedom" in August 1821 after partially liberating Peru from the Spanish. On 26 and 27 July 1822, Bolívar held the Guayaquil Conference with San Martín and attempted to decide the political fate of Peru.
San Martín received the title of "Protector of Peruvian Freedom" in August 1821 after partially liberating Peru from the Spanish. On 26 and 27 July 1822, Bolívar held the Guayaquil Conference with San Martín and attempted to decide the political fate of Peru.
Following the interview, San Martin abandoned Peru on 22 September 1822 and left the whole command of the independence movement to Simon Bolivar. The Peruvian congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824, which allowed him to reorganize the political and military administration completely.
Following the interview, San Martin abandoned Peru on 22 September 1822 and left the whole command of the independence movement to Simon Bolivar. The Peruvian congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824, which allowed him to reorganize the political and military administration completely.
Assisted by general Antonio José de Sucre, Bolívar decisively defeated the Spanish cavalry at the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824.
Sucre destroyed the still numerically superior remnants of the Spanish forces at Ayacucho on 9 December 1824.
An attempt to unite Peru and Bolivia was made during the period 1836–1839 by Bolivian President Andres de Santa Cruz when the Peru-Bolivian Confederation came into existence.
Domestic and foreign finance in modern Peru, 1850–1950: financing visions of development (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993) Stewart, Watt.
Between 1857 and 1860 a war broke out against Ecuador for the disputed territories in the Amazon.
Between 1857 and 1860 a war broke out against Ecuador for the disputed territories in the Amazon.
"Arms, guano, and shipping: the WR Grace interests in Peru, 1865–1885".
Henry Meiggs: Yankee Pizarro (Duke University Press, 1946), on 1870s ===Primary sources=== Higgins, James (editor).
President Tomás Guardia contracted with Meiggs in 1871 to build a railroad to the Atlantic.
"The Peruvian Government and the nitrate trade, 1873–1879".
Financial problems forced the government to take over in 1874.
Conditions were very brutal for the Chinese, and led to strikes and violent suppression. In 1879, Peru entered the War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884.
On 14 March 1879, Bolivia declared war and Chile, in response, declared war on Bolivia and Peru on 5 April 1879 with Peru following with its own declaration of war the next day.
Conditions were very brutal for the Chinese, and led to strikes and violent suppression. In 1879, Peru entered the War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884.
Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. In 1894, Nicolás de Piérola, after allying his party with the Civil Party of Peru to organize guerrilla fighters to occupy Lima, ousted Andrés Avelino Cáceres and once again became president of Peru in 1895.
Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. In 1894, Nicolás de Piérola, after allying his party with the Civil Party of Peru to organize guerrilla fighters to occupy Lima, ousted Andrés Avelino Cáceres and once again became president of Peru in 1895.
After a brief period in which the military once again controlled the country, civilian rule was permanently established with Pierola's election in 1895.
His second term was successfully completed in 1899 and was marked by his reconstruction of a devastated Peru by initiating fiscal, military, religious, and civil reforms.
Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. In 1894, Nicolás de Piérola, after allying his party with the Civil Party of Peru to organize guerrilla fighters to occupy Lima, ousted Andrés Avelino Cáceres and once again became president of Peru in 1895.
Bingham, often cited as the inspiration for Indiana Jones, "scientifically rediscovered" the site in 1911 and brought international attention to the site with his best-selling book Lost City of the Incas.
The movement draws its influences from the Mexican revolution and its 1917 Constitution, particularly on issues of agrarianism and indigenism, and to a lesser extent from the Russian revolution.
APRA is largely a political expression of the university reform and workers' struggles of the years 1918–1920.
Leguía's periods in government (1908–1912 and 1919–1930), the latter known as the "Oncenio" (the "Eleventh"), the entrance of American capital became general and the bourgeoisie was favored.
Until the 1920s, this period was called the "Aristocratic Republic", since most of the presidents that ruled the country were from the social elite. During Augusto B.
This was a nationalistic movement, populist and anti-imperialist, headed by Victor Raul Haya de la Torre in 1924.
Close to Marxism (its leader, Haya de la Torre, declares that "APRA is the Marxist interpretation of the American reality"), it nevertheless moves away from it on the question of class struggle and on the importance given to the struggle for the political unity of Latin America. In 1928, the Peruvian Socialist Party was founded, notably under the leadership of José Carlos Mariátegui, himself a former member of APRA.
In an arbitrage that both countries admitted, the United States decided that the plebiscite was impossible to take, therefore, direct negotiations between the parties led to a treaty (Treaty of Lima, 1929), in which Arica was ceded to Chile and Tacna remained in Peru.
Tacna was returned to Peru on 29 August 1929.
In late 1999, the governments of Peru and Chile implemented the last outstanding article of their 1929 border agreement. ===Aristocratic Republic (1884–1930)=== After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began.
Shortly afterwards, in 1929, the party created the General Confederation of Workers. === Alternation between democracy and militarism (1930–1979) === After the worldwide crisis of 1929, numerous brief governments followed one another.
Mariategui. Repression was brutal in the early 1930s and tens of thousands of APRA followers (Apristas) were executed or imprisoned.
According to Alberto Flores Galindo, "By the 1940 census, the last that utilized racial categories, mestizos were grouped with whites, and the two constituted more than 53 percent of the population.
"International Crises and Popular Movements in Latin America: Chile and Peru from the Great Depression to the Cold War", in Latin America in the 1940s, David Rock, ed.
The territorial loss and the extensive looting of Peruvian cities by Chilean troops left scars on the country's relations with Chile that have not yet fully healed. Following the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War of 1941, the Rio Protocol sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries.
Henry Meiggs: Yankee Pizarro (Duke University Press, 1946), on 1870s ===Primary sources=== Higgins, James (editor).
In 1948, Minister Manuel A.
Belaúnde's 1956 candidacy was ultimately unsuccessful, as the dictatorship-favored right-wing candidacy of Manuel Prado Ugarteche took first place. Belaúnde ran for president once again in the national elections of 1962; this time with his own party, Acción Popular (Popular Action).
Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Belaúnde by a more comfortable but still narrow five percent margin. Throughout Latin America in the 1960s, communist movements inspired by the Cuban Revolution sought to win power through guerrilla warfare.
During his administration, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's Gross Domestic Product dropped 20%.
Belaúnde's 1956 candidacy was ultimately unsuccessful, as the dictatorship-favored right-wing candidacy of Manuel Prado Ugarteche took first place. Belaúnde ran for president once again in the national elections of 1962; this time with his own party, Acción Popular (Popular Action).
Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Belaúnde by a more comfortable but still narrow five percent margin. Throughout Latin America in the 1960s, communist movements inspired by the Cuban Revolution sought to win power through guerrilla warfare.
The Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru), or MIR, launched an insurrection that had been crushed by 1965, but Peru's internal strife would only accelerate until its climax in the 1990s. The military has been prominent in Peruvian history.
New York: Harcourt Brace Janovich, 1970. Lockhart, James.
Stanford: Stanford University Press 1973. Bradley, Peter T.
As part of what has been called the "first phase" of the military government's nationalist program, Velasco undertook an extensive agrarian reform program and nationalized the fish meal industry, some petroleum companies, and several banks and mining firms. General Francisco Morales Bermúdez replaced Velasco in 1975, citing Velasco's economic mismanagement and deteriorating health.
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1975. Mills, Kenneth.
New York : Oxford University Press, 1976. Higgins, James.
Peru: a short history (Southern Illinois Univ Pr, 1978) ===Conquest=== Cieza de León, Pedro de.
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1978. Thomson, Sinclair.
A constitutional assembly was created in 1979, which was led by Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre.
Morales Bermúdez presided over the return to civilian government in accordance with a new constitution drawn up in 1979. ===Democratic restoration and elections (1979–present day)=== ==== 1980s ==== During the 1980s, cultivation of illicit coca was established in large areas on the eastern Andean slope.
The García administration unsuccessfully sought a military solution to the growing terrorism, committing human rights violations which are still under investigation. In June 1979, demonstrations for free education were severely repressed by the army: 18 people were killed according to official figures, but non-governmental estimates suggest several dozen deaths.
Morales Bermúdez presided over the return to civilian government in accordance with a new constitution drawn up in 1979. ===Democratic restoration and elections (1979–present day)=== ==== 1980s ==== During the 1980s, cultivation of illicit coca was established in large areas on the eastern Andean slope.
Rural insurgent movements, like the Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso, SL) and the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) increased and derived significant financial support from alliances with the narcotics traffickers, leading to the Internal conflict in Peru. In the May 1980 elections, President Fernando Belaúnde Terry was returned to office by a strong plurality.
He then eliminated the constitution; called new congressional elections; and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Fujimori's administration was dogged by several insurgent groups, most notably Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path), which carried on a terrorist campaign in the countryside throughout the 1980s and 1990s.
Innocents wrongfully tried by military courts during the war against terrorism (1980–2000) were allowed to receive new trials in civilian courts. On 28 August 2003, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (CVR), which had been charged with studying the roots of the violence of the 1980–2000 period, presented its formal report to the President. President Toledo was forced to make a number of cabinet changes, mostly in response to personal scandals.
Ongoing boundary disagreements led to a brief war in early 1981 and the Cenepa War in early 1995, but in 1998, the governments of both countries signed an historic peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them.
Gradually, he also attempted to undo some of the most radical effects of the Agrarian Reform initiated by Velasco and reversed the independent stance that the military government of Velasco had with the United States. Belaúnde's second term was also marked by the unconditional support for Argentine forces during the Falklands War with the United Kingdom in 1982.
In response to Chile's support of the UK, Belaúnde called for Latin American unity. The nagging economic problems left over from the previous military government persisted, worsened by an occurrence of the "El Niño" weather phenomenon in 1982–83, which caused widespread flooding in some parts of the country, severe droughts in others, and decimated the schools of ocean fish that are one of the country's major resources.
Stanford: Stanford University Press 1984. Stavig, Ward.
After a promising beginning, Belaúnde's popularity eroded under the stress of inflation, economic hardship, and terrorism. In 1985, the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) won the presidential election, bringing Alan García to office.
The transfer of the presidency from Belaúnde to García on 28 July 1985 was Peru's first exchange of power from one democratically elected leader to another for the first time in 40 years. With a parliamentary majority for the first time in APRA's history, Alan García started his administration with hopes for a better future.
García's term in office was marked by bouts of hyperinflation, which reached 7,649% in 1990 and had a cumulative total of 2,200,200% between July 1985 and July 1990, thereby profoundly destabilizing the Peruvian economy. Owing to such chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the sol, was replaced by the Inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol ("new sun") in July 1991, at which time the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles.
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1985. Andrien, Kenneth J.
A history of Peruvian literature (Francis Cairns, 1987) Werlich, David P.
However, economic mismanagement led to hyperinflation from 1988 to 1990.
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1988. Baker, Geoffrey.
New York: St Martin's Press 1989. Burns, Kathryn.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989. Gootenberg, Paul, Andean cocaine: the making of a global drug.
The Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru), or MIR, launched an insurrection that had been crushed by 1965, but Peru's internal strife would only accelerate until its climax in the 1990s. The military has been prominent in Peruvian history.
However, economic mismanagement led to hyperinflation from 1988 to 1990.
García's term in office was marked by bouts of hyperinflation, which reached 7,649% in 1990 and had a cumulative total of 2,200,200% between July 1985 and July 1990, thereby profoundly destabilizing the Peruvian economy. Owing to such chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the sol, was replaced by the Inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol ("new sun") in July 1991, at which time the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles.
This event led to a radicalization of political protests in the countryside and ultimately led to the outbreak of the Shining Path's armed and terrorist actions. ====Fujimori's presidency and the Fujishock (1990–2000)==== Concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from Sendero Luminoso and MRTA, and allegations of official corruption, voters chose a relatively unknown mathematician-turned-politician, Alberto Fujimori, as president in 1990.
Fujimori implemented drastic measures that caused inflation to drop from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991.
He then eliminated the constitution; called new congressional elections; and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Fujimori's administration was dogged by several insurgent groups, most notably Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path), which carried on a terrorist campaign in the countryside throughout the 1980s and 1990s.
He cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by government paramilitary groups, and the bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Shining Path.
Durham: Duke University Press 1990. ===Post Independence era=== Blanchard, Peter.
García's term in office was marked by bouts of hyperinflation, which reached 7,649% in 1990 and had a cumulative total of 2,200,200% between July 1985 and July 1990, thereby profoundly destabilizing the Peruvian economy. Owing to such chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the sol, was replaced by the Inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol ("new sun") in July 1991, at which time the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles.
Fujimori implemented drastic measures that caused inflation to drop from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991.
Princeton: Princeton University Press 1991. Mangan, Jane E.
The poverty rate remained at around 50%. As other dictators did, Fujimori dissolved Congress in the auto-golpe of 5 April 1992, in order to have total control of the government of Peru.
With the capture of Abimael Guzmán (known as President Gonzalo to the Shining Path) in September 1992, the Shining Path received a severe blow which practically destroyed the organization. In December 1996, a group of insurgents belonging to the MRTA took over the Japanese embassy in Lima, taking 72 people hostage.
Liverpool: Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Liverpool 1992. Bradley, Peter T.
Wilmington: Scholarly Resources 1992. Bonilla, Heraclio.
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1993. TePaske, John J., ed.
Domestic and foreign finance in modern Peru, 1850–1950: financing visions of development (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993) Stewart, Watt.
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994. Kenney, Charles Dennison.
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994, 109–140. Gootenberg, Paul, Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru.
Ongoing boundary disagreements led to a brief war in early 1981 and the Cenepa War in early 1995, but in 1998, the governments of both countries signed an historic peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them.
With the capture of Abimael Guzmán (known as President Gonzalo to the Shining Path) in September 1992, the Shining Path received a severe blow which practically destroyed the organization. In December 1996, a group of insurgents belonging to the MRTA took over the Japanese embassy in Lima, taking 72 people hostage.
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1996. Hyland, Sabine.
Stanford: Stanford University Press 1996. Serulnikov, Sergio.
Military commandos stormed the embassy compound in May 1997, which resulted in the death of all 15 hostage takers, one hostage, and 2 commandos.
Princeton: Princeton University Press 1997. Osorio, Alejandra B.
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1997. Walker, Charles F.
Ongoing boundary disagreements led to a brief war in early 1981 and the Cenepa War in early 1995, but in 1998, the governments of both countries signed an historic peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them.
Durham: Duke University Press 1998. Hemming, John.
In late 1999, the governments of Peru and Chile implemented the last outstanding article of their 1929 border agreement. ===Aristocratic Republic (1884–1930)=== After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began.
University Park: Penn State Press 1999. Charnay, Paul.
Durham: Duke University Press 1999. Fisher, John.
Durham: Duke University Press 1999. ===Economic and labor history=== De Secada, C.
Peasants on Plantations: Subaltern Strategies of Labor and Resistance in the Pisco Valley, Peru (Duke University Press, 1999) Purser, Michael, and W.
It later emerged, however, that Fujimori's security chief Vladimiro Montesinos may have ordered the killing of at least eight of the rebels after they surrendered. Fujimori's constitutionally questionable decision to seek a third term and subsequent tainted victory in June 2000 brought political and economic turmoil.
Montesinos subsequently emerged as the center a vast web of illegal activities, including embezzlement, graft, drug trafficking, as well as human rights violations committed during the war against Sendero Luminoso. ==== Toledo, García, Humala, Kuczynski presidencies (2001–today) ==== In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went to Japan in self-imposed exile, avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.
Lexus Editores, Barcelona 2000
Authorities in Venezuela arrested him in Caracas in June 2001 and turned him over to Peruvian authorities; he is now imprisoned and charged with acts of corruption and human rights violations committed during Fujimori's administration. A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections.
The elections were held in April 2001; observers considered them to be free and fair.
Alejandro Toledo (who led the opposition against Fujimori) defeated former President Alan García. The newly elected government took office on 28 July 2001.
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2001. Bakewell, Peter J.
Blue Ridge Summit: University Press of America 2001. Dean, Carolyn.
Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001. Varón Gabai, Rafael.
The return of epidemics: health and society in Peru during the twentieth century (Ashgate, 2001) Hünefeldt, Christine.
Amsterdam: Aksant 2002. Chambers, Sarah C.
Innocents wrongfully tried by military courts during the war against terrorism (1980–2000) were allowed to receive new trials in civilian courts. On 28 August 2003, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (CVR), which had been charged with studying the roots of the violence of the 1980–2000 period, presented its formal report to the President. President Toledo was forced to make a number of cabinet changes, mostly in response to personal scandals.
After strikes by teachers and agricultural producers led to nationwide road blockages in May 2003, Toledo declared a state of emergency that suspended some civil liberties and gave the military power to enforce order in 12 regions.
Liverpool: Liverpool University Press 2003. Fisher, John R., Allan J.
Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 2003. Garrett, David T.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 2003. Jacobsen, Nils.
Durham: Duke University Press 2003. Spalding, Karen.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 2003. Van Deusen, Nancy E.
Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest (Oxford University Press, 2003) Thurner, Mark.
Fujimori's coup and the breakdown of democracy in Latin America (Univ of Notre Dame Press, 2004) Larson, Brooke.
New York: Cambridge University Press 2004. Méndez G., Cecilia.
Boulder: University Press of Colorado 2005. ===Colonial era=== Andrien, Kenneth J.
New York: Cambridge University Press 2005. Griffiths, Nicholas.
Durham: Duke University Press 2005. Marks, Patricia.
Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2005. Ramírez, Susan Elizabeth.
Durham: Duke University Press, 2005. Miller, Rory.
This was the evidence of community agricultural improvements that occurred at a much earlier date than previously believed. In 2006, Robert Benfer and a research team discovered a 4200-year-old observatory at Buena Vista, a site in the Andes several kilometers north of present-day Lima.
The state of emergency was later reduced to only the few areas where the Shining Path was operating. On 28 July 2006, former president Alan García became the President of Peru.
He won the 2006 elections after winning in a runoff against Ollanta Humala.
In 2007, the archaeologist Walter Alva and his team found a 4000-year-old temple with painted murals at Ventarrón, in the northwest Lambayeque region.
University Park: Penn State Press 2007. Means, Philip Ainsworth.
In May 2008, President García was a signatory to The UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations.
Durham: Duke University Press 2008. Bowser, Frederick P.
Durham: Duke University Press 2008. Lockhart, James.
New York: Palgrave 2008. Poma de Ayala, Felipe Guaman, The First New Chronicle and Good Government: On the History of the World and the Incas up to 1615.
Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008. Greenhill, Robert G., and Rory M.
Austin: University of Texas Press 2009. Premo, Bianca.
The first round of the election was won by well-known writer Mario Vargas Llosa, a conservative candidate who went on to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2010, but Fujimori defeated him in the second round.
History's Peru: The Poetics of Colonial and Postcolonial Historiography (University Press of Florida; 2010) 302 pages; a study of Peruvian historiography from Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (1539–1616) to Jorge Basadre (1903–80).
Peru has ratified the treaty. On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected President in a run-off against Keiko Fujimori, the daughter of Alberto Fujimori and former First Lady of Peru, in the 2011 elections, making him the first leftist president of Peru since Juan Velasco Alvarado.
In December 2011, a state of emergency was declared following popular opposition to some major mining project and environmental concerns. Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was elected president in the general election in July 2016.
"From the Inca to the Bourbons: New writings on pre-colonial and colonial Peru", Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History Volume 12, Number 3, Winter 2011 Restall, Matthew.
In December 2011, a state of emergency was declared following popular opposition to some major mining project and environmental concerns. Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was elected president in the general election in July 2016.
Kuczynski was widely criticized on pardoning former President Alberto Fujimori, going against his campaign promises against his rival, Keiko Fujimori. In March 2018, after a failure to impeach the president, Kuczynski faced yet again the threat of impeachment on the basis of corruption in vote buying and bribery with the Odebrecht corporation.
On 23 March 2018, Kucyznski was forced to resign from the presidency, and has not been heard from since.
His successor would be his first vice president, engineer Martín Vizcarra, who would succeed him as President until the end of the term in 2021.
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