The Habsburgs rapidly expanded their empire; in 1718 Oltenia, a major part of Wallachia, was annexed to the Habsburg monarchy and was only returned in 1739.
Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the territory firmly in control even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a vast majority. ===Status of women=== In Romania between the 1750s and the 1830s, the exclusion of dowered women from the family inheritance led to increased cohesion within the nuclear family.
In 1775, the Habsburgs later occupied the north-western part of Moldavia, which was later called Bukovina and was incorporated to the Austrian Empire in 1804.
In 1775, the Habsburgs later occupied the north-western part of Moldavia, which was later called Bukovina and was incorporated to the Austrian Empire in 1804.
A History of the Balkans 1804-1945 (Routledge, 2014). Roberts, Henry L.
The eastern half of the principality, which was called Bessarabia, was occupied in 1812 by Russia. During the Austro-Hungarian rule of Transylvania, Romanians formed the majority of the population.
During his rule, the local boyars enacted the first Romanian constitution. === Revolutions of 1848 === In 1848, there was a revolution in Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania perpetrated by Tudor Vladimirescu and his Pandurs in the Wallachian uprising of 1821.
Nationality issues occurred between Hungarians and Romanians due to the Magyarization policy. After their defeat to the Russians, the Ottoman Empire restored the Danube ports of Turnu, Giurgiu and Braila to Wallachia, and agreed to give up their commercial monopoly and recognize freedom of navigation on the Danube as specified in the Treaty of Adrianople, which was signed in 1829.
Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the territory firmly in control even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a vast majority. ===Status of women=== In Romania between the 1750s and the 1830s, the exclusion of dowered women from the family inheritance led to increased cohesion within the nuclear family.
Following the war, Romanian lands came under Russian occupation under the governance of General Pavel Kiselyov until 1844.
During his rule, the local boyars enacted the first Romanian constitution. === Revolutions of 1848 === In 1848, there was a revolution in Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania perpetrated by Tudor Vladimirescu and his Pandurs in the Wallachian uprising of 1821.
The uprising helped the population of all three principalities recognize their unity of language and interests; all three Romanian principalities were very close in language and geography. After the unsuccessful 1848 revolution, the Great Powers rejected the Romanians' desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing the Romanians to proceed alone their struggle against the Turks.
Heavily taxed and badly administered under the Ottoman Empire, in 1859, people's representatives in both Moldavia and Wallachia elected the same Domnitor (ruling Prince of the Romanians); Alexander John Cuza. Romania was created as a personal union that did not include Transylvania, where the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian, although Romanian nationalism clashed with Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century.
Social Change in Romania, 1860–1940 (California UP, 1978) Lampe, John R.
The long-term result was a greater legal empowerment of women while providing economic security to divorced women, widows, and children. == Independence and Kingdom of Romania == In an 1866 coup d'état, Cuza was exiled and replaced with Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.
Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the territory firmly in control even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a vast majority. ===Status of women=== In Romania between the 1750s and the 1830s, the exclusion of dowered women from the family inheritance led to increased cohesion within the nuclear family.
"Romania and the Balkan Crisis of 1875-78." Journal of Central European Affairs 2 (1942): 129+. Dinu, Elena Steluța.
Romania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire after the 1877-1878 Russo-Turkish War, in which the Ottomans fought against the Russian empire. In the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was officially recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers.
Romania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire after the 1877-1878 Russo-Turkish War, in which the Ottomans fought against the Russian empire. In the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was officially recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers.
In 1881, the Romania's principality status was raised to that of a kingdom and on 26 March that year, Prince Carol became King Carol I of Romania. The period between 1878 and 1914 was one of stability and progress for Romania.
In 1881, the Romania's principality status was raised to that of a kingdom and on 26 March that year, Prince Carol became King Carol I of Romania. The period between 1878 and 1914 was one of stability and progress for Romania.
Revue des Sciences Politiques 45 (2015): 76–88; covers 1885-1913 online. Du Nay, Andre.
In the Western world, Vlad is best known for being the inspiration for the main character in Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula.
In the Treaty of Bucharest of 1913, Romania gained Southern Dobruja and established the Durostor and Caliacra counties. The governments of Britain and the United States repeatedly protested the brutal treatment of Romanians Jews, who were regarded as aliens who had no civil or political rights.
Romania also acquired Southern Dobruja territory called "The Quadrilateral" from Bulgaria as a result of its participation in the Second Balkan War in 1913. As a result of the peace treaties, most regions with clear Romanian majorities were merged into a single state.
In 1881, the Romania's principality status was raised to that of a kingdom and on 26 March that year, Prince Carol became King Carol I of Romania. The period between 1878 and 1914 was one of stability and progress for Romania.
Romania engaged in arbitrary expulsions of Jews as vagabonds and tolerated violent pogroms against Jews, many of whom fled to the United States. == World War I == The new state, which was located between the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian empires, looked to the West—particularly to France—for its cultural, educational, military and administrative models. In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared its neutrality.
Between 14 and 27 August 1916, Romania joined the Allies, for which it was promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, including recognition of Romanian rights over Transylvania, which was part of Austria-Hungary.
Romanian Cassandra: Ion Antonescu & the Struggle for Reform, 1916-1941 (1993) 390pp ===Historiography and memory=== Bucur, Maria.
Moldavia remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917.
In May 1918, Romania could not continue the war and negotiated a peace treaty with Germany.
In November 1918, Romania rejoined the war after the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires had disintegrated. == Greater Romania (1918–1940) == In 1918, at the end of World War I, the union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and some of the Allies recognized the union with Bessarabia in 1920 through the never ratified Treaty of Paris.
National minorities were recognized by the 1923 Constitution of Romania and supported by laws; they were represented in Parliament and several of them created political parties, although a unique standing of minorities with autonomy on a wide basis, provided for at the assembly of Transylvanian Romanians on 1 December 1918, was not fulfilled. === Transition to authoritarian rule === Two periods can be identified in Romania between the two World Wars.
From 1918 to 1938, Romania was a monarchy whose liberal Constitution was seldom respected in practice, but one facing the rise of the nationalist, anti-semitic parties, particularly Iron Guard, which won about 15% of the votes in the general elections of 1937.
Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building and Ethnic Struggle, 1918–1930 (Cornell UP, 1995) Michelson, Paul E.
In November 1918, Romania rejoined the war after the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires had disintegrated. == Greater Romania (1918–1940) == In 1918, at the end of World War I, the union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and some of the Allies recognized the union with Bessarabia in 1920 through the never ratified Treaty of Paris.
In November 1918, Romania rejoined the war after the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires had disintegrated. == Greater Romania (1918–1940) == In 1918, at the end of World War I, the union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and some of the Allies recognized the union with Bessarabia in 1920 through the never ratified Treaty of Paris.
At that time, Romania achieved its greatest territorial extent, almost ), including all of the historic Romanian lands. Most of the claimed territories were granted to the Old Kingdom of Romania, which was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon that defined the new border between Hungary and Romania.
The union of Bucovina and Bessarabia with Romania was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Versailles.
National minorities were recognized by the 1923 Constitution of Romania and supported by laws; they were represented in Parliament and several of them created political parties, although a unique standing of minorities with autonomy on a wide basis, provided for at the assembly of Transylvanian Romanians on 1 December 1918, was not fulfilled. === Transition to authoritarian rule === Two periods can be identified in Romania between the two World Wars.
A History of the Roumanians (Cambridge UP, 1934).
From 1918 to 1938, Romania was a monarchy whose liberal Constitution was seldom respected in practice, but one facing the rise of the nationalist, anti-semitic parties, particularly Iron Guard, which won about 15% of the votes in the general elections of 1937.
From 1918 to 1938, Romania was a monarchy whose liberal Constitution was seldom respected in practice, but one facing the rise of the nationalist, anti-semitic parties, particularly Iron Guard, which won about 15% of the votes in the general elections of 1937.
From 1938 to 1944, Romania was a dictatorship.
The first dictator was King Carol II, who abolished the parliamentary regime and ruled with his camarilla. In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which stipulated, among other things, the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia.
Following the severe territorial losses of 1940 (see next section), Carol was forced to abdicate, replaced as king by his son Mihai, but the power was taken by the military dictator Ion Antonescu (initially in conjunction with the Iron Guard).
In August 1944, Antonescu was arrested by Mihai. == World War II and aftermath (1940–1947) == During the Second World War, Romania tried to remain neutral but on 28 June 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance.
Southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. In 1940, Romania lost territory in both its east and west: In June 1940, after receiving an ultimatum from the Soviet Union, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina Two-thirds of Bessarabia was combined with a small part of the USSR to form the Moldavian SSR.
In August 1940, Northern Transylvania was awarded to Hungary by Germany and Italy through the Second Vienna Award.
For four months—the period of the National Legionary State—he shared power with the Iron Guard but the latter overplayed its hand in January 1941 and was suppressed.
Romania entered World War II under the command of the German Wehrmacht in June 1941, declaring war on the Soviet Union to recover Bessarabia and northern Bukovina.
From 1938 to 1944, Romania was a dictatorship.
In August 1944, Antonescu was arrested by Mihai. == World War II and aftermath (1940–1947) == During the Second World War, Romania tried to remain neutral but on 28 June 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance.
According to an international commission report released by the Romanian government in 2004, Antonescu's dictatorial government was responsible for the murder in various forms including deportations to concentration camps and executions by the Romanian Army and Gendarmerie, and the German Einsatzgruppen of between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews on Romanian territories and in the war zones Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transnistria. On 20 August 1944, the Soviet Red Army crossed the border into Romania.
On 23 August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania, who joined the Allies and declared war on Germany.
On 31 August 1944, the Red Army entered Bucharest.
The Moldavian-SSR became independent of the Soviet Union after the latter's 1991 demise and turned into the Republic of Moldova. == Communist period (1947–1989) == Soviet occupation following World War II strengthened the position of Communists, who became dominant in the left-wing coalition government that was appointed in March 1945.
Despite Romania's change of sides, its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote through a combination of vote manipulation, elimination and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force.
Between 1947 and 1962, people were detained in prisons and camps, deported and put under [arrest] and administrative detention.
During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements; mixed Soviet-Romanian companies were established to mask the Soviet Union's looting of Romania. Romania's leader from 1948 to his death in 1965 was Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the First Secretary of the Romanian Workers' Party.
Romania was proclaimed a people's republic and remained under military and economic control of the Soviet Union until the late 1950s.
Rumania: Political Problems of an Agrarian State (Yale UP, 1951) Seton-Watson, R.
According to Benjamin Valentino, probably tens or hundreds of thousands of deaths occurred as part of political repression and agricultural collectivization in Communist Romania, though he said documentation is insufficient for an accurate estimate to be made. Gheorghiu-Dej attained greater independence for Romania from the Soviet Union by persuading Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev to withdraw troops from Romania in April 1958.
Between 1947 and 1962, people were detained in prisons and camps, deported and put under [arrest] and administrative detention.
During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements; mixed Soviet-Romanian companies were established to mask the Soviet Union's looting of Romania. Romania's leader from 1948 to his death in 1965 was Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the First Secretary of the Romanian Workers' Party.
Ceauşescu's independent foreign policy meant leaders of Western nations leaders were slow to criticize Romania's government which, by the late 1970s, had become arbitrary, capricious and harsh.
Modernization in Romania since world war II (Greenwood, 1975). Hall, Richard C.
Romania's close ties with Arab countries and the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) allowed to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Egyptian president Sadat to Israel. Between 1977 and 1981, Romania's foreign debt sharply increased from US$3 to US$10 billion and the influence of international financial organizations such as the IMF and the World Bank grew, in conflict with Ceauşescu's autarchic policies.
Social Change in Romania, 1860–1940 (California UP, 1978) Lampe, John R.
The Romanian economy grew quickly through foreign credit but this was replaced with austerity and political repression, which became more draconian through the 1980s. Ceauşescu eventually initiated a project of full reimbursement of the foreign debt; to achieve this, he imposed austerity policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the nation's economy.
Romania's close ties with Arab countries and the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) allowed to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Egyptian president Sadat to Israel. Between 1977 and 1981, Romania's foreign debt sharply increased from US$3 to US$10 billion and the influence of international financial organizations such as the IMF and the World Bank grew, in conflict with Ceauşescu's autarchic policies.
History of the Balkans (2 vol 1983) Jókai, Mór.
The project was completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow.
He greatly extended the authority of the Securitate (secret police) and imposed a cult of personality, leading to a dramatic decrease in Ceauşescu's popularity and culminating in his overthrow and execution in the bloody Romanian Revolution in December 1989. == 1989 Revolution == The Romanian Revolution resulted in more than 1,000 deaths in Timișoara and Bucharest, and brought the fall of Ceauşescu and the end of the Communist regime in Romania.
After a week of unrest in Timişoara, a mass rally summoned in Bucharest in support of Ceauşescu on 21 December 1989 turned hostile.
The Ceauşescu couple fled Bucharest by helicopter but ended up in the custody of the army. After being tried and convicted by a kangaroo court for genocide and other crimes, they were executed on 25 December 1989. Ion Iliescu, a former Communist Party official marginalized by Ceauşescu, attained national recognition as the leader of an impromptu governing coalition, the National Salvation Front (FSN) that proclaimed the establishment of democracy and civil liberties on 22 December 1989.
Several major political parties of the pre-war era, the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNŢCD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR), were reconstituted. In April 1990, after several major political rallies that January), a sit-in protest questioning the legitimacy of the government began in University Square, Bucharest, organized by the main opposition parties.
Presidential and parliamentary elections were held on 20 May 1990.
The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Emil Constantinescu of the Democratic Convention (CDR) won the second round of the 1996 presidential elections and replaced Iliescu as chief of state.
It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a full member on 1 January 2007. Following the free travel agreement and politic of the post–Cold War period, as well as hardship of the life in the post 1990s economic depression, Romania has an increasingly large diaspora.
"In Search for a Usable Past: The Question of National Identity in Romanian Studies, 1990–2000" East European Politics and Societies 17 (2003), 415–453. Turda, Marius.
The Moldavian-SSR became independent of the Soviet Union after the latter's 1991 demise and turned into the Republic of Moldova. == Communist period (1947–1989) == Soviet occupation following World War II strengthened the position of Communists, who became dominant in the left-wing coalition government that was appointed in March 1945.
Petre Roman's government fell in late September 1991, when the miners returned to Bucharest to demand higher salaries.
A technocrat, Theodor Stolojan, was appointed to head an interim government until new elections could be held. === New constitution === In December 1991, a new constitution was drafted and subsequently adopted, after a popular referendum, which, however, attracted criticism from international observers.
Economic Change in the Balkan States: Albania, Bulgaria, Romania and Yugoslavia (Pinter, 1991). Stavrianos, L.S.
Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceauşescu’s Romania (U of California Press, 1991). Wachtel, Andrew Baruch.
The constitution was most recently revised by a national referendum on 18–19 October 2003, and took effect on 29 October 2003. In March 1992, the FSN split into two groups: the Democratic National Front (FDSN), led by Ion Iliescu and the Democratic Party (PD), led by Petre Roman.
Iliescu won the presidential elections in September 1992 and his FDSN won the general elections held at the same time.
With parliamentary support from the nationalist Romanian National Unity Party (PUNR), Greater Romania Party (PRM), and the ex-communist Socialist Workers' Party (PSM), a new government was formed in November 1992 under Prime Minister Nicolae Văcăroiu.
The FDSN changed its name to Party of Social Democracy in Romania (PDSR) in July 1993. The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR) (later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania).
In December 2004, the new coalition government (PD, PNL, PUR Romanian Humanist Party—which eventually changed its name to Romanian Conservative Party and UDMR—was sworn in under Prime Minister Tăriceanu. In June 1993, the country applied for membership in the European Union (EU).
Later parliamentary inquiries showed members of the government intelligence services were involved in the instigation and manipulation of both the protesters and the miners, and in June 1994, a Bucharest court found two former Securitate officers guilty of ransacking and stealing $100,000 from the house of a leading opposition politician.
"Balkan But Different: Romania and Bulgaria's Contrasting Paths to NATO Membership 1994–2002." Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 20.4 (2004): 1-19. Gilberg, Trond.
It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a full member on 1 January 2007. Following the free travel agreement and politic of the post–Cold War period, as well as hardship of the life in the post 1990s economic depression, Romania has an increasingly large diaspora.
Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building and Ethnic Struggle, 1918–1930 (Cornell UP, 1995) Michelson, Paul E.
The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Emil Constantinescu of the Democratic Convention (CDR) won the second round of the 1996 presidential elections and replaced Iliescu as chief of state.
The new coalition government, under prime minister Victor Ciorbea remained in office until March 1998, when Radu Vasile (PNŢCD) took over as prime minister.
The former governor of the National Bank, Mugur Isărescu, eventually replaced Radu Vasile as head of the government. The 2000 election brought Iliescu's PDSR, known as Social Democratic Party (PSD) after the merger with the PSDR, back to power.
This article covers the history and bibliography of Romania and links to specialized articles. == Prehistory == 34,950-year-old remains of modern humans with a possible Neanderthalian trait were discovered in present-day Romania when the Peștera cu Oase ("Cave with Bones") was uncovered in 2001.
The constitution was most recently revised by a national referendum on 18–19 October 2003, and took effect on 29 October 2003. In March 1992, the FSN split into two groups: the Democratic National Front (FDSN), led by Ion Iliescu and the Democratic Party (PD), led by Petre Roman.
According to an international commission report released by the Romanian government in 2004, Antonescu's dictatorial government was responsible for the murder in various forms including deportations to concentration camps and executions by the Romanian Army and Gendarmerie, and the German Einsatzgruppen of between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews on Romanian territories and in the war zones Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transnistria. On 20 August 1944, the Soviet Red Army crossed the border into Romania.
Adrian Năstase became the prime minister of the newly formed government. In 2004 Traian Băsescu was elected president with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA).
The government was formed by a larger coalition which also included the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party. == NATO and European Union membership (2004–present) == Post–Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. Presidential and parliamentary elections took place again on 28 November 2004.
The joint PNL-PD candidate Traian Băsescu won the second round on 12 December 2004 with 51% of the vote and became the third post-revolutionary president of Romania.
In December 2004, the new coalition government (PD, PNL, PUR Romanian Humanist Party—which eventually changed its name to Romanian Conservative Party and UDMR—was sworn in under Prime Minister Tăriceanu. In June 1993, the country applied for membership in the European Union (EU).
It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a full member on 1 January 2007. Following the free travel agreement and politic of the post–Cold War period, as well as hardship of the life in the post 1990s economic depression, Romania has an increasingly large diaspora.
45 (June 2006) Zavatti, Francesco.
It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a full member on 1 January 2007. Following the free travel agreement and politic of the post–Cold War period, as well as hardship of the life in the post 1990s economic depression, Romania has an increasingly large diaspora.
Heroes and victims: Remembering war in twentieth-century Romania (Indiana UP, 2009). Hitchins, Keith.
In 2011, older modern human remains were identified in the UK (Kents Cavern 41,500 to 44,200 years old) and Italy (Grotta del Cavallo 43,000 to 45,000 years old) but the Romanian fossils are still among the oldest remains of Homo sapiens in Europe, so they may be representative of the first such people to have entered Europe.
A History of the Balkans 1804-1945 (Routledge, 2014). Roberts, Henry L.
Södertörns högskola, 2016) online. == External links == The Beginning of the Final Solution: Murder of the Jews of Romania on the Yad Vashem website History of Romania: Primary Documents Prehistory of Southeastern Europe Rumania#Sejarah
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