Between 1839 and 1876 the Empire went through a period of reform.
Between 1839 and 1876 the Empire went through a period of reform.
The Young Ottomans who were dissatisfied with these reforms worked together with Sultan Abdülhamid II to realize some form of constitutional arrangement in 1876.
After the short-lived attempt of turning the Empire into a constitutional monarchy, Sultan Abdülhamid II turned it back into an absolute monarchy by 1878 by suspending the constitution and parliament. A couple decades later a new reform movement under the name of the Young Turks conspired against Sultan Abdülhamid II, who was still in charge of the Empire, by starting the Young Turk Revolution.
They forced the sultan to reintroduce the constitutional rule in 1908.
In 1909 they deposed the sultan and in 1913 seized power in a coup.
In 1909 they deposed the sultan and in 1913 seized power in a coup.
In 1914 the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers as an ally of the German Empire and subsequently lost the war.
In 1918 the leaders of the Young Turks took full responsibility for the lost war and fled the country into exile leaving the country in chaos. The Armistice of Mudros was signed which granted the Allies, in a broad and vaguely worded clause, the right to further occupy Anatolia "in case of disorder".
Shortly after the Greek occupation of Western Anatolia in 1919, Mustafa Kemal Pasha set foot in Samsun to start the Turkish War of Independence against the occupations and persecutions of Muslims in Anatolia.
The Soviet Union played a major role in supplying weapons to and financing Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's faction during the Turkish War of Independence but Turkey's followed a course of relative international isolation during the period of Atatürk's Reforms in 1920s and 1930s.
The Republic of Turkey was created after the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new Republican Parliament in 1922.
Turkey was established based on the ideology found in the country's pre-Ottoman history and was also steered towards a secular political system to diminish the influence of religious groups such as the Ulema. ==Single-party period (1923–1945)== ===Atatürk era (1923–1938)=== The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on October 29, 1923, with Atatürk as its first president.
International conferences gave Turkey full control of the strategic straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, though the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 and the Montreux Convention of 1936. ===Post-Atatürk era (1938–1945)=== Atatürk's successor after his death on November 10, 1938 was İsmet İnönü.
The Liberal Republican Party was dissolved on 17 November 1930 and no further attempt for a multi-party democracy was made until 1945.
The Soviet Union played a major role in supplying weapons to and financing Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's faction during the Turkish War of Independence but Turkey's followed a course of relative international isolation during the period of Atatürk's Reforms in 1920s and 1930s.
He started his term in the office as a respected figure of the Independence War but because of internal fights between power groups and external events like the World War which caused a lack of goods in the country, he lost some of his popularity and support. In the late 1930s Nazi Germany made a major effort to promote anti-Soviet propaganda in Turkey and exerted economic pressure.
Turkey was admitted to the League of Nations in July 1932. ===Foreign policy=== Historically, Turkey continued the Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire to balance regional and global powers off against one another, forming alliances that best protected the interests of the incumbent regime.
International conferences gave Turkey full control of the strategic straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, though the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 and the Montreux Convention of 1936. ===Post-Atatürk era (1938–1945)=== Atatürk's successor after his death on November 10, 1938 was İsmet İnönü.
International conferences gave Turkey full control of the strategic straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, though the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 and the Montreux Convention of 1936. ===Post-Atatürk era (1938–1945)=== Atatürk's successor after his death on November 10, 1938 was İsmet İnönü.
Britain and France, eager to outmaneuver Germany, negotiated a tripartite treaty in 1939.
İnönü signed a non-aggression treaty with Nazi Germany on June 18, 1941, 4 days before the Axis powers invaded the Soviet Union.
In July 1942, Bozrukat published a map of Greater Turkey, which included Soviet controlled Caucasus and central Asian republics.
In the summer of 1942, Turkish high command considered war with the Soviet Union almost unavoidable.
It was clear by 1944 that Germany would be defeated and the chrome sales to Germany stopped. Turkey's goal was to maintain neutrality during the war.
Inflation was high as prices doubled. By August 1944, the Axis was clearly losing the war and Turkey broke off relations.
The Liberal Republican Party was dissolved on 17 November 1930 and no further attempt for a multi-party democracy was made until 1945.
Only in February 1945, Turkey declared war on Germany and Japan, a symbolic move that allowed Turkey to join the future United Nations. On October 24, 1945 Turkey signed the United Nations Charter as one of the fifty-one original members. ====Multi-party transition (1945)==== In 1945, the first opposition party in the multi-party system in Turkey, the National Development Party, was established by industrialist Nuri Demirağ.
He is still remembered as one of the key figures of Turkey. ==Multi-party period (1945–present)== ===Early period (1945–1987)=== Although the multi-party period began in 1945, the election of the Democratic Party government in May 1950 marked the first victory by a non-CHP party. The government of Adnan Menderes (1950-1960) proved very popular at first, relaxing the restrictions on Islam and presiding over a booming economy.
In 1946, İnönü's government organized multi-party elections, which were won by his party.
He remained as the president of the country until 1950.
He is still remembered as one of the key figures of Turkey. ==Multi-party period (1945–present)== ===Early period (1945–1987)=== Although the multi-party period began in 1945, the election of the Democratic Party government in May 1950 marked the first victory by a non-CHP party. The government of Adnan Menderes (1950-1960) proved very popular at first, relaxing the restrictions on Islam and presiding over a booming economy.
In the latter half of the 1950s, however, the economy began to fail and the government introduced censorship laws limiting dissent.
The government became plagued by high inflation and a massive debt. ====Military coups==== On May 27, 1960, General Cemal Gürsel led a military coup d'état, removing President Celal Bayar and Prime Minister Menderes, the second of whom was executed.
The system returned to civilian control in October 1961.
The fractured political scene and poor economy led to mounting violence between ultranationalists and communists in the streets of Turkey's cities, resulting in some 5,000 deaths during the late 1970s. A military coup d'état, headed by General Kenan Evren, took place in 1980.
The fractured political scene and poor economy led to mounting violence between ultranationalists and communists in the streets of Turkey's cities, resulting in some 5,000 deaths during the late 1970s. A military coup d'état, headed by General Kenan Evren, took place in 1980.
The political system came under one-party governance under the Motherland Party (ANAP) of Turgut Özal (Prime Minister from 1983 to 1989).
Military rule began to be phased out at the end of 1983.
In particular in provinces in the south-east of Turkey it was replaced by a state of emergency. ==== Conflict with Kurdish groups (1984–present) ==== A conflict started in 1984 between the Turkish government and various Kurdish insurgent groups, which have demanded separation from Turkey to create an independent Kurdistan, mainly Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and primarily in the southeast of the country.
In 1985 the government established village guards (local paramilitary militias) to oppose Kurdish groups.
To counter the insurgency further, in 1987 the OHAL (state of emergency) region was established in several provinces where the rebellion was active and in which a super-governor governed with extensive political power over the political and security departments.
On 25 July 2015, the conflict resumed when the Turkish Air Force bombed PKK positions in Iraq. ===Political instability (1987–2002)=== Starting in July 1987, the South-East was submitted to state of emergency legislation, a measure which lasted until November 2002.
The political system came under one-party governance under the Motherland Party (ANAP) of Turgut Özal (Prime Minister from 1983 to 1989).
With the turn of the 1990s, political instability returned.
A large part of the population have welcomed the end of the political and economic instability of the 1990s, often associated with coalition governments - see Economic history of Turkey.
The PKK has announced a cease-fire between 1993 and 1998 and declared it would not want to separate from Turkey, but demanded peace negotiations and cultural rights.
The 1995 elections brought a short-lived coalition between Mesut Yılmaz's ANAP and the True Path Party, now with Tansu Çiller at the helm. In 1997, the military, citing his government's support for religious policies deemed dangerous to Turkey's secular nature, sent a memorandum to Prime Minister Necmettin Erbakan requesting that he resign, which he did.
The 1995 elections brought a short-lived coalition between Mesut Yılmaz's ANAP and the True Path Party, now with Tansu Çiller at the helm. In 1997, the military, citing his government's support for religious policies deemed dangerous to Turkey's secular nature, sent a memorandum to Prime Minister Necmettin Erbakan requesting that he resign, which he did.
The PKK has announced a cease-fire between 1993 and 1998 and declared it would not want to separate from Turkey, but demanded peace negotiations and cultural rights.
The leader of PKK, Abdullah Öcalan was captured in Nairobi by the Turkish National Intelligence Agency (MIT) and taken to Turkey where he was sentenced for terrorism and treason charges in the first days of February 1999.
The DSP became the largest parliamentary party in the 1999 elections.
On 25 July 2015, the conflict resumed when the Turkish Air Force bombed PKK positions in Iraq. ===Political instability (1987–2002)=== Starting in July 1987, the South-East was submitted to state of emergency legislation, a measure which lasted until November 2002.
The government was somewhat effective, if not harmonious, bringing about much-needed economic reform, instituting human rights legislation, and bringing Turkey ever closer to the European Union. ===AKP government (2002–present)=== A series of economic shocks led to new elections in 2002, bringing into power the conservative Justice and Development Party (AKP) It was headed by the former mayor of Istanbul, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.
The AKP has positioned itself in the midpoint of the Turkish political scene, much thanks to the stability brought by steady economic growth since they came to power in 2002.
The AKP again won the 2007 elections, which followed the controversial August 2007 presidential election, during which AKP member Abdullah Gül was elected president at the third round.
2011 figures showed a 9% GDP growth for Turkey. Alleged members of a clandestine group called Ergenekon were detained in 2008 as part of a long and complex trial.
On 22 February 2010 more than 40 officers were arrested and formally charged with attempting to overthrow the government with respect to so-called "Sledgehammer" plot.
"The rise and fall of liberal democracy in Turkey: Implications for the West" Foreign Policy at Brookings (2019) online - Published online on 5 August 2011 Yavuz, M.
In 2013, the Turkish government started talks with Öcalan.
On 21 March 2013, Öcalan announced the "end of armed struggle" and a ceasefire with peace talks.
The accused included four admirals, a general and two colonels, some of them retired, including former commanders of the Turkish navy and air force (three days later, the former commanders of the navy and air force were released). Although the 2013 protests in Turkey started as a response against the removal of Taksim Gezi Park in Istanbul, they have sparked riots across the country in cities such as Izmir and Ankara as well.
CHP won 134 seats, HDP 59 seats, MHP 40 seats. Since 2013, in the conflict between Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and Turkish government, 304 civilians were killed by ISIL attacks across Turkey, excluding 2015 Ankara bombings allegedly perperated by ISIL in which 109 civilians died.
On 25 July 2015, the conflict resumed when the Turkish Air Force bombed PKK positions in Iraq. ===Political instability (1987–2002)=== Starting in July 1987, the South-East was submitted to state of emergency legislation, a measure which lasted until November 2002.
Twenty-two people were killed and more than 8,000 were injured, many critically. In the Turkish parliamentary elections of 1 November 2015, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) won back the absolute majority in parliament: 317 of the 550 seats.
CHP won 134 seats, HDP 59 seats, MHP 40 seats. Since 2013, in the conflict between Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and Turkish government, 304 civilians were killed by ISIL attacks across Turkey, excluding 2015 Ankara bombings allegedly perperated by ISIL in which 109 civilians died.
2015 Ankara bombings was the deadliest terror attack in modern Turkish history. On 15 July 2016 factions within the Turkish Military attempted to overthrow President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, citing growing non-secularism and censorship as motivation for the attempted coup.
Media in New Turkey: The Origins of an Authoritarian Neoliberal State (University of Illinois Press, 2016) online review Zurcher, Erik.
There has been allegations of torture in connection with these purges. On April 16, 2017, the Turkey constitutional referendum was voted in, although narrowly and divided.
Many observers and European states view the referendum as an "enabling act" and see it as "democratically backsliding". On June 24, 2018, Recep Tayyip Erdogan won the presidential election in Turkey again. An ongoing worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a novel infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was first confirmed to have spread to Turkey in March 2020.
Many observers and European states view the referendum as an "enabling act" and see it as "democratically backsliding". On June 24, 2018, Recep Tayyip Erdogan won the presidential election in Turkey again. An ongoing worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a novel infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was first confirmed to have spread to Turkey in March 2020.
Many observers and European states view the referendum as an "enabling act" and see it as "democratically backsliding". On June 24, 2018, Recep Tayyip Erdogan won the presidential election in Turkey again. An ongoing worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a novel infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was first confirmed to have spread to Turkey in March 2020.
Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020). Hanioglu, M.
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