Around 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled from King Shaka and created his own clan, the Ndebele.
When Boer trekkers converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward.
By 1838, the Rozwi Empire, along with the other Shona states had been unconquered by the Ndebele. After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo as their capital.
By 1838, the Rozwi Empire, along with the other Shona states had been unconquered by the Ndebele. After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo as their capital.
However, with the popularisation of Christianity and other religions, Ndebele traditional religion is now uncommon Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son, Lobengula.
In the 1880s, the British South Africa Company began its activities in the region, leading to the colonial era in Southern Rhodesia. Following the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979 there was a transition to internationally recognized majority rule in 1980; the British, more specifically, the United Kingdom ceremonially granted Zimbabwe independence on 18 April that year.
The nascent kingdom encountered European powers for the first time and Lonbengula signed various treaties with the various nations jostling for power in the region, playing them off one another in order to preserve the sovereignty of his kingdom and gain the aid of the Europeans should the kingdom become involved in a war. == Colonial era (1890–1980) == In the 1880s, British diamond magnate Cecil Rhodes' British South Africa Company (BSAC) started to make inroads into the region.
In 1888, Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele peoples.
In 1895 the BSAC adopted the name 'Rhodesia' for the territory of Zambesia, in honour of Cecil Rhodes.
The region to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and later named Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). The Shona waged unsuccessful wars (known as Chimurenga) against encroachment upon their lands by clients of BSAC and Cecil Rhodes in 1896 and 1897.
Following the failed insurrections of 1896–97 the Ndebele and Shona groups became subject to Rhodes's administration thus precipitating European settlement en masse in the new colony. The colony's first formal constitution was drafted in 1899, and copied various pieces of legislation directly from that of the Union of South Africa; Rhodesia was meant to be, in many ways, a shadow colony of the Cape.
The region to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and later named Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). The Shona waged unsuccessful wars (known as Chimurenga) against encroachment upon their lands by clients of BSAC and Cecil Rhodes in 1896 and 1897.
In 1898, the name Southern Rhodesia was adopted.
In 1898, 'Southern Rhodesia' became the official denotation for the region south of the Zambezi, which later became Zimbabwe.
Following the failed insurrections of 1896–97 the Ndebele and Shona groups became subject to Rhodes's administration thus precipitating European settlement en masse in the new colony. The colony's first formal constitution was drafted in 1899, and copied various pieces of legislation directly from that of the Union of South Africa; Rhodesia was meant to be, in many ways, a shadow colony of the Cape.
The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe: Harare and Highfield, 1940-1964 (Rochester University Press, 2008). Sibanda, Eliakim M.
Fifty one percent of the land was given to approximately 50,000 white inhabitants, with 29.8 per cent left for over a million Africans. Many Rhodesians served on behalf of the United Kingdom during World War II, mainly in the East African Campaign against Axis forces in Italian East Africa. In 1953, the British government consolidated the two colonies of Rhodesia with Nyasaland (now Malawi) in the ill-fated Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland which was dominated by Southern Rhodesia.
The Zimbabwe African People's Union, 1961-87: A Political History of Insurgency in Southern Rhodesia (2004). ==External links== Background Note: Zimbabwe Monomotapa
In 1962, however, with growing African nationalism and general dissent, the British government declared that Nyasaland had the right to secede from the Federation; soon afterwards, they said the same for Northern Rhodesia. After African-majority governments had assumed control in neighbouring Northern Rhodesia and in Nyasaland, the white-minority Southern Rhodesian government led by Ian Smith made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965.
In 1962, however, with growing African nationalism and general dissent, the British government declared that Nyasaland had the right to secede from the Federation; soon afterwards, they said the same for Northern Rhodesia. After African-majority governments had assumed control in neighbouring Northern Rhodesia and in Nyasaland, the white-minority Southern Rhodesian government led by Ian Smith made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965.
The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy Toward Rhodesia During the UDI Era, 1965-1979 (New York: Routledge, 2019).
The white minority government declared itself a republic in 1970.
Although Smith's declaration was not recognised by the United Kingdom nor any other foreign power, Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation "Southern", and claimed nation status as the Republic of Rhodesia in 1970 although this was not recognised internationally. ==Independence and the 1980s== The country gained official independence as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.
In the months leading up to the poll, ZANU-PF, with the support of the army, security services, and especially the so-called 'war veterans', – very few of whom actually fought in the Second Chimurenga against the Smith regime in the 1970s – set about wholesale intimidation and suppression of the MDC-led opposition.
In the 1880s, the British South Africa Company began its activities in the region, leading to the colonial era in Southern Rhodesia. Following the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979 there was a transition to internationally recognized majority rule in 1980; the British, more specifically, the United Kingdom ceremonially granted Zimbabwe independence on 18 April that year.
In the 1880s, the British South Africa Company began its activities in the region, leading to the colonial era in Southern Rhodesia. Following the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979 there was a transition to internationally recognized majority rule in 1980; the British, more specifically, the United Kingdom ceremonially granted Zimbabwe independence on 18 April that year.
Prior to its recognized independence as Zimbabwe in 1980, the nation had been known by several names: Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Zimbabwe Rhodesia. == Pre-Colonial era (1000–1887) == Prior to the arrival of Bantu speakers in present-day Zimbabwe the region was populated by ancestors of the San people.
Although Smith's declaration was not recognised by the United Kingdom nor any other foreign power, Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation "Southern", and claimed nation status as the Republic of Rhodesia in 1970 although this was not recognised internationally. ==Independence and the 1980s== The country gained official independence as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.
The government renamed the main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, in honour of Samora Machel, President of Mozambique. In 1992, a World Bank study indicated that more than 500 health centres had been built since 1980.
The percentage of children vaccinated increased from 25% in 1980 to 67% in 1988 and life expectancy increased from 55 to 59 years.
Several laws were passed in the 1980s in an attempt to reduce wage gaps.
On 17 March 1980, after several unsuccessful assassination attempts Mugabe asked Walls, "Why are your men trying to kill me?" Walls replied, "If they were my men you would be dead." BBC news interviewed Walls on 11 August 1980.
He told the BBC that he had asked British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to annul the 1980 election prior to the official announcement of the result on the grounds that Mugabe used intimidation to win the election.
At present almost no arable land is in the possession of white farmers. ===The economy during the 1980s and 1990s=== The economy was run along corporatist lines with strict governmental controls on all aspects of the economy.
The BBC issued its report on 26 June, recommending the privatisation of the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation and its independence from political interests. Mugabe's government changed the capital's name from Salisbury to Harare on 18 April 1982 in celebration of the second anniversary of independence.
In 1982 government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, accusing Nkomo and his followers of plotting to overthrow the government.
Seven MPs, members of the Rhodesian Front, left Smith's party to sit as "independents" on 4 March 1982, signifying their dissatisfaction with his policies.
In 1983 to 1984 the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress members of the Ndebele tribe.
In 1983 to 1984 the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress members of the Ndebele tribe.
The pacification campaign, known as the Gukuruhundi, or strong wind, resulted in at least 20,000 civilian deaths perpetrated by an elite, North Korean-trained brigade, known in Zimbabwe as the Gukurahundi. ZANU-PF increased its majority in the 1985 elections, winning 67 of the 100 seats.
The government amended the Constitution in 1986, eliminating the voter rolls and replacing the white seats with seats filled by nominated members.
In government amended the Constitution in 1987 to provide for an Executive President and abolished the office of Prime Minister.
Centring primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were at the time PF-ZAPU's main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987.
Fighting did not cease until Mugabe and Nkomo reached an agreement in December 1987 whereby ZAPU became part of ZANU-PF and the government changed the constitution to make Mugabe the country's first executive president and Nkomo one of two vice-presidents. ==1990s== Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats.
The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006, albeit on a lesser scale. In September 2005 Mugabe signed constitutional amendments that reinstituted a national senate (abolished in 1987) and that nationalised all land.
The percentage of children vaccinated increased from 25% in 1980 to 67% in 1988 and life expectancy increased from 55 to 59 years.
In 1988, the law gave women, at least in theory, the same rights as men.
The constitutional changes came into effect on 1 January 1988 with Robert Mugabe as president.
In 1990 the government abolished the Senate and increased the House of Assembly's membership to include members nominated by the President. Prime Minister Mugabe kept Peter Walls, the head of the army, in his government and put him in charge of integrating the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), and the Rhodesian Army.
Fighting did not cease until Mugabe and Nkomo reached an agreement in December 1987 whereby ZAPU became part of ZANU-PF and the government changed the constitution to make Mugabe the country's first executive president and Nkomo one of two vice-presidents. ==1990s== Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats.
Unsatisfied with a de facto one-party state, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a de jure one-party state in September 1990 and lost.
The general health of the civilian population also began to significantly flounder and by 1997 25% of the population of Zimbabwe had been infected by HIV, the AIDS virus. During the 1990s students, trade unionists, and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government.
Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police.
At present almost no arable land is in the possession of white farmers. ===The economy during the 1980s and 1990s=== The economy was run along corporatist lines with strict governmental controls on all aspects of the economy.
Some market reforms in the 1990s were attempted.
The judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticised the first amendments enacted in April 1991 because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the government.
Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police.
The government renamed the main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, in honour of Samora Machel, President of Mozambique. In 1992, a World Bank study indicated that more than 500 health centres had been built since 1980.
Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police.
In 1992 police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations.
In 1994 widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy.
In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues. On 9 December 1997 a national strike paralysed the country.
The general health of the civilian population also began to significantly flounder and by 1997 25% of the population of Zimbabwe had been infected by HIV, the AIDS virus. During the 1990s students, trade unionists, and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government.
In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues. On 9 December 1997 a national strike paralysed the country.
The incidence of poverty in the country increased during this time. ==1999 to 2000== However, Zimbabwe began experiencing a period of considerable political and economic upheaval in 1999.
The Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) was established in September 1999 as an opposition party founded by trade unionist Morgan Tsvangirai. The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government.
In the 2000s Zimbabwe's economy began to deteriorate due to various factors, including, the imposition of economic sanctions by western countries led by the United Kingdom, and also due to wide spread corruption in government.
The first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion around 2000 years ago. These Bantu speakers were the makers of early Iron Age pottery belonging to the Silver Leaves or Matola tradition, third to fifth centuries A.D., found in southeast Zimbabwe.
The incidence of poverty in the country increased during this time. ==1999 to 2000== However, Zimbabwe began experiencing a period of considerable political and economic upheaval in 1999.
The Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) was established in September 1999 as an opposition party founded by trade unionist Morgan Tsvangirai. The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government.
Kolawole Olaniyan, Director of Amnesty International's Africa Programme said "We are very concerned by reports of continuing brutal attacks on opposition activists in Zimbabwe and call on the government to stop all acts of violence and intimidation against opposition activists". The economy has shrunk by 50% from 2000 to 2007.
Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly. ==2002== Presidential elections were held in March 2002.
Since the 2002 election, Zimbabwe has suffered further economic difficulty and growing political chaos. ==2003–2005== Divisions within the opposition MDC had begun to fester early in the decade, after Morgan Tsvangirai (the president of the MDC) was lured into a government sting operation that videotaped him talking of Mr.
In 2004 he was acquitted, but not until after suffering serious abuse and mistreatment in prison.
Divisive as the violence was, it was a debate over the rule of law that set off the party's final break-up in November 2005.
Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2005 were held in March 2005 in which ZANU-PF won a two-thirds majority, were again criticised by international observers as being flawed.
As a result, the elections for a new Senate in November 2005 were largely boycotted by the opposition.
In May 2005 the government began Operation Murambatsvina.
The operation continued into July 2005, when the government began a program to provide housing for the newly displaced. Human Rights Watch said the evictions had disrupted treatment for people with HIV/AIDS in a country where 3,000 die from the disease each week and about 1.3 million children have been orphaned.
The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006, albeit on a lesser scale. In September 2005 Mugabe signed constitutional amendments that reinstituted a national senate (abolished in 1987) and that nationalised all land.
As of September 2006, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and ruling party loyalists, not those displaced.
The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006, albeit on a lesser scale. In September 2005 Mugabe signed constitutional amendments that reinstituted a national senate (abolished in 1987) and that nationalised all land.
The early months of 2006 were marked by food shortages and mass hunger.
The sheer extremity of the siltation was revealed by the fact that in the courts, state witnesses said they were too weak from hunger to testify. ==2006 to 2007== In August 2006 runaway inflation forced the government to replace its existing currency with a revalued one.
In December 2006, ZANU-PF proposed the "harmonisation" of the parliamentary and presidential election schedules in 2010; the move was seen by the opposition as an excuse to extend Mugabe's term as president until 2010. Morgan Tsvangirai was badly beaten on 12 March 2007 after being arrested and held at Machipisa Police Station in the Highfield suburb of Harare.
Harare's drinking water became unreliable in 2006 and as a consequence dysentery and cholera swept the city in December 2006 and January 2007.
The sheer extremity of the siltation was revealed by the fact that in the courts, state witnesses said they were too weak from hunger to testify. ==2006 to 2007== In August 2006 runaway inflation forced the government to replace its existing currency with a revalued one.
In December 2006, ZANU-PF proposed the "harmonisation" of the parliamentary and presidential election schedules in 2010; the move was seen by the opposition as an excuse to extend Mugabe's term as president until 2010. Morgan Tsvangirai was badly beaten on 12 March 2007 after being arrested and held at Machipisa Police Station in the Highfield suburb of Harare.
Kolawole Olaniyan, Director of Amnesty International's Africa Programme said "We are very concerned by reports of continuing brutal attacks on opposition activists in Zimbabwe and call on the government to stop all acts of violence and intimidation against opposition activists". The economy has shrunk by 50% from 2000 to 2007.
In September 2007 the inflation rate was put at almost 8,000%, the world's highest.
Harare's drinking water became unreliable in 2006 and as a consequence dysentery and cholera swept the city in December 2006 and January 2007.
It features mansions, manicured lawns, full shops with fully stocked shelves containing an abundance of fruit and vegetables, big cars and a golf club give is the home to President Mugabe's out-of-town retreat. Zimbabwe's bakeries shut down in October 2007 and supermarkets warned that they would have no bread for the foreseeable future due to collapse in wheat production after the seizure of white-owned farms.
On 4 December 2007, The United States imposed travel sanctions against 38 people with ties to President Mugabe because they "played a central role in the regime's escalated human rights abuses." On 8 December 2007, Mugabe attended a meeting of EU and African leaders in Lisbon, prompting UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown to decline to attend.
While German chancellor Angela Merkel criticised Mugabe with her public comments, the leaders of other African countries offered him statements of support. ===Deterioration of the educational system=== The educational system in Zimbabwe which was once regarded as among the best in Africa, went into crisis in 2007 because of the country's economic meltdown.
The high school exam system unravelled in 2007.
Corruption has crept into the system and may explain why in January 2007 thousands of pupils received no marks for subjects they had entered, while others were deemed "excellent" in subjects they had not sat.
Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama: Democracy and Peace in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 12/08, Stadtschlaining 2008 Maguwu, Farai: Land Reform, Famine and Environmental Degradation in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 06/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 Michel, Eddie.
However, as of late the education system has recovered and is still considered the best in Southern Africa. ==2008== ===2008 elections=== Zimbabwe held a presidential election along with a 2008 parliamentary election of 29 March.
As no candidate received an outright majority in the first round, a second round was held on 27 June 2008 between Tsvangirai (with 47.9% of the first round vote) and Mugabe (43.2%).
ZANU-PF has said that Mugabe will participate in a second round; the party alleged that some electoral officials, in connection with the MDC, fraudulently reduced Mugabe's score, and as a result a recount was conducted. After the recount and the verification of the results, the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission (ZEC) announced on 2 May that Tsvangirai won 47.9% and Mugabe won 43.2%, thereby necessitating a run-off, which was to be held on 27 June 2008.
On 22 June 2008, Tsvangirai announced that he was withdrawing from the run-off, describing it as a "violent sham" and saying that his supporters risked being killed if they voted for him.
The talks were mediated by South African President Thabo Mbeki. On 15 September 2008, the leaders of the 14-member Southern African Development Community witnessed the signing of the power-sharing agreement, brokered by South African leader Thabo Mbeki.
As provided, Robert Mugabe will remain president, Morgan Tsvangirai will become prime minister, ZANU-PF and the MDC will share control of the police, Mugabe's Zanu (PF) will command the Army, and Arthur Mutambara becomes deputy prime minister. ===Marange diamond fields massacre=== In November 2008 the Air Force of Zimbabwe was sent, after some police officers began refusing orders to shoot the illegal miners at Marange diamond fields.
In 2008 some Zimbabwean lawyers and opposition politicians from Mutare claimed that Shiri was the prime mover behind the military assaults on illegal diggers in the diamond mines in the east of Zimbabwe.
Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama: Democracy and Peace in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 12/08, Stadtschlaining 2008 Maguwu, Farai: Land Reform, Famine and Environmental Degradation in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 06/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 Michel, Eddie.
A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008 (Weaver Press, 2009).
The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe: Harare and Highfield, 1940-1964 (Rochester University Press, 2008). Sibanda, Eliakim M.
Estimates of the death toll by mid-December range from 83 reported by the Mutare City Council, based on a request for burial ground, to 140 estimated by the (then) opposition Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai party. ==2009 to present== ===2009–2017=== In January 2009, Morgan Tsvangirai announced that he would do as the leaders across Africa had insisted and join a coalition government as prime minister with his nemesis, President Robert Mugabe .
On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Zimbabwe.
By 2009 inflation had peaked at 500 billion % per year under the Mugabe government and the Zimbabwe currency was worthless.
A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008 (Weaver Press, 2009).
In December 2006, ZANU-PF proposed the "harmonisation" of the parliamentary and presidential election schedules in 2010; the move was seen by the opposition as an excuse to extend Mugabe's term as president until 2010. Morgan Tsvangirai was badly beaten on 12 March 2007 after being arrested and held at Machipisa Police Station in the Highfield suburb of Harare.
Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? (Zed Books 2011).
History of Zimbabwe (Oxford University Press, 2014) Raftopoulos, Brian & Alois Mlambo, Eds.
Cash became scarce on the market in the year 2017. On Wednesday 15 November 2017 the military placed President Mugabe under house arrest and removed him from power.
He tweeted that "'The President is safe' is a classic coup catch-phrase" of such an event. Robert Mugabe resigned 21 November 2017.
Emmerson Mnangagwa was sworn in as president on 24 November 2017. ===2018–2019=== General elections were held on 30 July 2018 to elect the president and members of both houses of parliament.
Emmerson Mnangagwa was sworn in as president on 24 November 2017. ===2018–2019=== General elections were held on 30 July 2018 to elect the president and members of both houses of parliament.
The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy Toward Rhodesia During the UDI Era, 1965-1979 (New York: Routledge, 2019).
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