The flare was seen by the British astronomer Richard Carrington in September 1859.
These nations developed intercontinental ballistic missiles for the delivery of nuclear weapons, producing rockets large enough to be adapted to carry the first artificial satellites into low Earth orbit. After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on Project Mercury, with the aim of launching men into orbit.
Russia has built half of the International Space Station and has continued its cooperation with the US. === China === After Russia's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, Chairman Mao Zedong intended to place a Chinese satellite in orbit by 1959 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC).
These nations developed intercontinental ballistic missiles for the delivery of nuclear weapons, producing rockets large enough to be adapted to carry the first artificial satellites into low Earth orbit. After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on Project Mercury, with the aim of launching men into orbit.
Russia has built half of the International Space Station and has continued its cooperation with the US. === China === After Russia's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, Chairman Mao Zedong intended to place a Chinese satellite in orbit by 1959 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC).
Kennedy raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s.
There have been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen. In 1960, McDonnell Aircraft test pilot G.B.
People trained for spaceflight are called astronauts, cosmonauts, or taikonauts; and non-professionals are referred to as spaceflight participants. The first human in space was Yuri Gagarin, who flew the Vostok 1 spacecraft, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 12 April 1961 as part of the Vostok program.
The USSR was secretly pursuing the Vostok program to accomplish the same thing, and launched the first human into space, the cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who, on 12 April 1961, was launched aboard Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket and completed a single orbit.
On 5 May 1961, the US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight aboard Freedom 7 on a Mercury-Redstone rocket.
Walker) that exceeded the Kármán line, the altitude used by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) to denote the edge of space. In 1961, US President John F.
"A brief history of spaceflight from 1961 to 2020: An analysis of missions and astronaut demographics." Acta Astronautica 175 (2020): 290–299. == External links == NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America) Human Spaceflight Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program U.S.
On 20 February 1962, John Glenn became the first American in orbit, aboard Friendship 7 on a Mercury-Atlas rocket.
Walker (depending on the definition of the space border) was the first to pilot a spaceplane, the North American X-15, on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker). 18 March 1965 Alexei Leonov was first to walk in space. 15 December 1965 Walter M.
The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6, on 16 June 1963.
Through 1963, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flights and four into orbit.
She flew in 1963, but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again.
Walker (depending on the definition of the space border) was the first to pilot a spaceplane, the North American X-15, on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker). 18 March 1965 Alexei Leonov was first to walk in space. 15 December 1965 Walter M.
They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first spacewalk, performed by Alexei Leonov on Voskhod 2 on 8 March 1965.
The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps.
They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first spacewalk, performed by Alexei Leonov on Voskhod 2 on 8 March 1965.
Walker (depending on the definition of the space border) was the first to pilot a spaceplane, the North American X-15, on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker). 18 March 1965 Alexei Leonov was first to walk in space. 15 December 1965 Walter M.
The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps.
This led NASA to use a nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space. ==== Reliability ==== The March 1966 Gemini 8 mission was aborted in orbit when an attitude control system thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin that threatened the lives of Neil Armstrong and David Scott.
On 14 July 1967, Mao and Premier Zhou Enlai decided that the PRC should not be left behind, and started China's own human spaceflight program.
The astronaut would wait roughly 7.5 hours for breathable air to run out before dying of suffocation. ==== Reentry and landing ==== The single pilot of Soyuz 1, Vladimir Komarov, was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash. On 1 February 2003, the crew of seven aboard the were killed on reentry after completing a successful mission in space.
An electrical fire started in the cabin of Apollo 1 during a ground test at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly.
Humans traveled to the Moon nine times between 1968 and 1972 as part of the United States Apollo program, and have had a continuous presence in space for on the International Space Station (ISS). To date, Russia, the United States, and China are the only countries with public or commercial human spaceflight-capable programs.
In July 1969, Apollo 11 accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot Michael Collins.
They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986. ==== Post-Apollo era ==== In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, Spiro Agnew, to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo.
However, China did not successfully launch its first satellite until 24 April 1970.
The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit. The third lunar landing expedition, Apollo 13, in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew—James Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise—were threatened after the failure of a cryogenic liquid oxygen tank en route to the Moon.
They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986. ==== Post-Apollo era ==== In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, Spiro Agnew, to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo.
Humans traveled to the Moon nine times between 1968 and 1972 as part of the United States Apollo program, and have had a continuous presence in space for on the International Space Station (ISS). To date, Russia, the United States, and China are the only countries with public or commercial human spaceflight-capable programs.
Through 1972, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon, half of which drove electric powered vehicles on the surface.
However, the first attempt, the Shuguang spacecraft, which was copied from the US Gemini craft, was canceled on 13 May 1972. China later designed the Shenzhou spacecraft, which resembled the Russian Soyuz, and became the third nation to achieve independent human spaceflight capability by launching Yang Liwei on a 21-hour flight aboard Shenzhou 5 on 15 October 2003.
This solar storm of August 1972 would likely have caused acute illness, at least. Another type of radiation, galactic cosmic rays, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases, resulting in a weakened immune system and the activation of dormant viruses in the body.
The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings. In 1973, the US launched the Skylab sortie space station and inhabited it for 171 days with three crews ferried aboard Apollo spacecraft.
The USSR launched three Almaz military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts.
They successfully developed the three-person Soyuz spacecraft for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the N1 rocket necessary for a human landing, discontinuing their lunar programs in 1974.
As part of this, they negotiated the Apollo-Soyuz program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with Soyuz 19 in 1975.
The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch into space of SpaceShipTwo Flight VP-03 on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of Apollo in 1975 and the first Space Shuttle flight in 1981, and is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S.
The first occurred on Soyuz 18a on 5 April 1975.
A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that resulted in a fear of fluid leakage; but after a thorough investigation, it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction.
The USSR launched three Almaz military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts.
That ended with the 1978 flight of Vladimir Remek.
The Columbus space station was reconfigured as the European module of the same name on the International Space Station. Japan (NASDA) began development of the HOPE-X experimental shuttle spaceplane in the 1980s, to be launched on its H-IIA expendable launch vehicle.
She flew in 1963, but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again.
It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001. The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make Space Station Freedom a reality.
The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch into space of SpaceShipTwo Flight VP-03 on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of Apollo in 1975 and the first Space Shuttle flight in 1981, and is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S.
This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft. In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the at the Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39. In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the Ariane 5 launch pad at Guiana Space Centre. A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire.
From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a European Space Agency sortie space station called Spacelab in the Shuttle payload bay. The USSR copied the US's reusable Space Shuttle orbiter, which they called Buran-class orbiter or simply Buran, which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable Energia rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing.
Again, both crew members survived. In the first use of a launch escape system on the launchpad, before the start of a crewed flight, happened during the planned Soyuz T-10a launch on 26 September 1983, which was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff.
They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986. ==== Post-Apollo era ==== In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, Spiro Agnew, to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo.
Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable space tug; and nuclear interplanetary ferry, leading to a [mission to Mars|human expedition to Mars] as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated.
They followed Salyut with the development of Mir, the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996.
A fifth shuttle, Endeavour, was built to replace Challenger, which was destroyed in an accident during launch that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986.
Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely. The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the Space Shuttle Challenger broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a solid rocket booster seal, which caused the failure of the external fuel tank, resulting in explosion of the fuel and separation of the boosters.
On 22 April 2017, the Tianzhou 1 cargo spacecraft docked with the station, which was later deorbited, in July 2019, burning up over the Pacific. === Abandoned programs of other nations === The European Space Agency began development of the Hermes shuttle spaceplane in 1987, to be launched on the Ariane 5 expendable launch vehicle.
A single uncrewed orbital test flight took place in November 1988.
In 2005, this system was proposed for space tourism. According to a press release from the Iraqi News Agency dated 5 December 1989, there was only one test of the Al-Abid space launcher, which Iraq intended to use to develop its own crewed space facilities by the end of the century.
A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002. === US / Russian cooperation === The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia.
These plans were put to an end by the Gulf War of 1991 and the economic hardships that followed. === United States "Shuttle gap" === Under the Bush administration, the Constellation program included plans for retiring the Space Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.
The projects were canceled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved.
A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
The Shuttle-Mir Program included American Space Shuttles visiting the Mir space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard Mir. In 1993, President Bill Clinton secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station Freedom into the International Space Station (ISS).
As an alternative to HOPE-X, NASDA in 2001 proposed the Fuji crew capsule for independent or ISS flights, but the project did not proceed to the contracting stage. From 1993 to 1997, the , Kawasaki Heavy Industries, and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries worked on the proposed Kankoh-maru vertical-takeoff-and-landing single-stage-to-orbit reusable launch system.
This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft. In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the at the Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39. In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the Ariane 5 launch pad at Guiana Space Centre. A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire.
They followed Salyut with the development of Mir, the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996.
As an alternative to HOPE-X, NASDA in 2001 proposed the Fuji crew capsule for independent or ISS flights, but the project did not proceed to the contracting stage. From 1993 to 1997, the , Kawasaki Heavy Industries, and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries worked on the proposed Kankoh-maru vertical-takeoff-and-landing single-stage-to-orbit reusable launch system.
From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a European Space Agency sortie space station called Spacelab in the Shuttle payload bay. The USSR copied the US's reusable Space Shuttle orbiter, which they called Buran-class orbiter or simply Buran, which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable Energia rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing.
Construction of the station began in 1998.
A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reductions, and the project's cancellation in 2003 in favor of participation in the International Space Station program through the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module and H-II Transfer Vehicle cargo spacecraft.
Eileen Collins was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission STS-93 in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S.
Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable space tug; and nuclear interplanetary ferry, leading to a [mission to Mars|human expedition to Mars] as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated.
human spaceflight gap. === Commercial private spaceflight === Since the early 2000s, a variety of private spaceflight ventures have been undertaken.
XCOR Aerospace had been developing the Lynx single-passenger spaceplane since the 2000s, but development was halted in 2017. == Human representation and participation == Participation and representation of humanity in space has been an issue ever since the first phase of space exploration.
Gennady Padalka has spent the most total time in space on multiple missions, 879 days. Longest-duration crewed space station The International Space Station has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November 2000 to present ().
It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001. The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make Space Station Freedom a reality.
As an alternative to HOPE-X, NASDA in 2001 proposed the Fuji crew capsule for independent or ISS flights, but the project did not proceed to the contracting stage. From 1993 to 1997, the , Kawasaki Heavy Industries, and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries worked on the proposed Kankoh-maru vertical-takeoff-and-landing single-stage-to-orbit reusable launch system.
Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002. === US / Russian cooperation === The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia.
However, the first attempt, the Shuguang spacecraft, which was copied from the US Gemini craft, was canceled on 13 May 1972. China later designed the Shenzhou spacecraft, which resembled the Russian Soyuz, and became the third nation to achieve independent human spaceflight capability by launching Yang Liwei on a 21-hour flight aboard Shenzhou 5 on 15 October 2003.
A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reductions, and the project's cancellation in 2003 in favor of participation in the International Space Station program through the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module and H-II Transfer Vehicle cargo spacecraft.
The astronaut would wait roughly 7.5 hours for breathable air to run out before dying of suffocation. ==== Reentry and landing ==== The single pilot of Soyuz 1, Vladimir Komarov, was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash. On 1 February 2003, the crew of seven aboard the were killed on reentry after completing a successful mission in space.
Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, . Haeuplik-Meusburger: Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach.
McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, . Pyle, Rod.
The first private human spaceflight launch was a suborbital flight on SpaceShipOne on June 21, 2004.
The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight.
SpaceShipOne captured the prize on 4 October 2004, when it accomplished two consecutive flights within one week. NASA and ESA use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space.
In 2005, this system was proposed for space tourism. According to a press release from the Iraqi News Agency dated 5 December 1989, there was only one test of the Al-Abid space launcher, which Iraq intended to use to develop its own crewed space facilities by the end of the century.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006.
The program envisages the development of a fully-autonomous orbital vehicle capable of carrying 2 or 3 crew members to an about low Earth orbit and bringing them safely back home. Since 2008, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency has developed the H-II Transfer Vehicle cargo-spacecraft-based crewed spacecraft and Kibō Japanese Experiment Module–based small space laboratory. NASA is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s.
China launched the Tiangong-1 space station on 29 September 2011, and two sortie missions to it: Shenzhou 9 16–29 June 2012, with China's first female astronaut Liu Yang; and Shenzhou 10, 13–26 June 2013.
In the 2011 United States federal budget, the Obama administration canceled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.
The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch into space of SpaceShipTwo Flight VP-03 on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of Apollo in 1975 and the first Space Shuttle flight in 1981, and is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S.
Springer Praxis Books, 2011, . Larson, Wiley J.
China launched the Tiangong-1 space station on 29 September 2011, and two sortie missions to it: Shenzhou 9 16–29 June 2012, with China's first female astronaut Liu Yang; and Shenzhou 10, 13–26 June 2013.
China launched the Tiangong-1 space station on 29 September 2011, and two sortie missions to it: Shenzhou 9 16–29 June 2012, with China's first female astronaut Liu Yang; and Shenzhou 10, 13–26 June 2013.
The station was retired on 21 March 2016 and reentered Earth's atmosphere on 2 April 2018, burning up with small fragments impacting the Pacific Ocean.
Tiangong-1's successor Tiangong-2 was launched in September 2016.
On 22 April 2017, the Tianzhou 1 cargo spacecraft docked with the station, which was later deorbited, in July 2019, burning up over the Pacific. === Abandoned programs of other nations === The European Space Agency began development of the Hermes shuttle spaceplane in 1987, to be launched on the Ariane 5 expendable launch vehicle.
XCOR Aerospace had been developing the Lynx single-passenger spaceplane since the 2000s, but development was halted in 2017. == Human representation and participation == Participation and representation of humanity in space has been an issue ever since the first phase of space exploration.
The station was retired on 21 March 2016 and reentered Earth's atmosphere on 2 April 2018, burning up with small fragments impacting the Pacific Ocean.
The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch into space of SpaceShipTwo Flight VP-03 on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of Apollo in 1975 and the first Space Shuttle flight in 1981, and is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S.
It reached space in December 2018. Blue Origin is in a multi-year test program of their New Shepard vehicle and has carried out 15 uncrewed test flights as of May 2021. == Passenger travel via spacecraft == Over the decades, a number of spacecraft have been proposed for spaceliner passenger travel.
The first all-female space walk occurred in 2018, by Christina Koch and Jessica Meir.
3 suborbital spaceflights since 2018, as of May 2021 Crew Dragon (US): Part of the Commercial Crew Program, launched from Kennedy Space Center on a Falcon 9 rocket.
On 15 August 2018, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, declared India will independently send humans into space before the 75th anniversary of independence in 2022.
The second occurred on 11 October 2018 with the launch of Soyuz MS-10.
On 22 April 2017, the Tianzhou 1 cargo spacecraft docked with the station, which was later deorbited, in July 2019, burning up over the Pacific. === Abandoned programs of other nations === The European Space Agency began development of the Hermes shuttle spaceplane in 1987, to be launched on the Ariane 5 expendable launch vehicle.
In 2019, ISRO revealed plans for a space station by 2030, followed by a crewed lunar mission.
The first commercial orbital crew launch was by SpaceX in May 2020, transporting, under government contract, astronauts to the ISS. == History == === Cold War era === Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR).
It first launched astronauts to orbit and to the ISS in May 2020 as part of the Demo-2 mission.
"A brief history of spaceflight from 1961 to 2020: An analysis of missions and astronaut demographics." Acta Astronautica 175 (2020): 290–299. == External links == NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America) Human Spaceflight Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program U.S.
As of May 2021, SpaceX has launched humans to orbit, while Virgin Galactic has launched crew to a height above on a suborbital trajectory.
A first tourist mission, Inspiration4, is planned for September 2021. Boeing is developing the Starliner capsule as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, which is launched on a United Launch Alliance Atlas V launch vehicle.
As of May 2021, Starliner has made one uncrewed flight.
A crewed flight is planned for late 2021.
It reached space in December 2018. Blue Origin is in a multi-year test program of their New Shepard vehicle and has carried out 15 uncrewed test flights as of May 2021. == Passenger travel via spacecraft == Over the decades, a number of spacecraft have been proposed for spaceliner passenger travel.
3 suborbital spaceflights since 2018, as of May 2021 Crew Dragon (US): Part of the Commercial Crew Program, launched from Kennedy Space Center on a Falcon 9 rocket.
The first step will begin with Artemis 1 in 2021, sending an uncrewed Orion spacecraft to a distant retrograde orbit around the Moon and returning it to Earth after a 25-day mission. Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs using natively developed equipment and technology, including Japan (JAXA), Iran (ISA), and North Korea (NADA).
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