wanted raids by Indians to stop, raids by American "frontier inhabitants" must also stop. ===Declaration of Independence=== In the indictment section of the Declaration of Independence, the Indigenous inhabitants of the Unites States are referred to as "merciless Indian Savages", reflecting a commonly held view at the time. ===Early congressional acts=== The Confederation Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (a precedent for U.S.
Constitution of 1787 (Article I, Section 8) made Congress responsible for regulating commerce with the Indian tribes.
citizenship to some Indian nations and proposed offering them credit to facilitate trade. ===George Washington=== President George Washington, in his 1790 address to the Seneca Nation which called the pre-Constitutional Indian land-sale difficulties "evils", said that the case was now altered and pledged to uphold Native American "just rights".
In 1790, the new U.S.
In March and April 1792, Washington met with 50 tribal chiefs in Philadelphia—including the Iroquois—to discuss strengthening the friendship between them and the United States.
Congress passed the Indian Nonintercourse Act (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes. ==Jeffersonian policy== As president, Thomas Jefferson developed a far-reaching Indian policy with two primary goals.
Later that year, in his fourth annual message to Congress, Washington stressed the need to build peace, trust, and commerce with Native Americans: In his seventh annual message to Congress in 1795, Washington intimated that if the U.S.
Congress passed the Indian Nonintercourse Act (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes. ==Jeffersonian policy== As president, Thomas Jefferson developed a far-reaching Indian policy with two primary goals.
Congress passed the Indian Nonintercourse Act (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes. ==Jeffersonian policy== As president, Thomas Jefferson developed a far-reaching Indian policy with two primary goals.
Congress passed the Indian Nonintercourse Act (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes. ==Jeffersonian policy== As president, Thomas Jefferson developed a far-reaching Indian policy with two primary goals.
In an 1803 letter to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson wrote: In that letter, Jefferson spoke about protecting the Indians from injustices perpetrated by whites: According to the treaty of February 27, 1819, the U.S.
The idea of land exchange, that Native Americans would give up their land east of the Mississippi in exchange for a similar amount of territory west of the river, was first proposed by Jefferson in 1803 and first incorporated into treaties in 1817 (years after the Jefferson presidency).
In his eighth annual message to Congress on November 8, 1808, he presented a vision of white and Indian unity: As some of Jefferson's other writings illustrate, however, he was ambivalent about Indian assimilation and used the words "exterminate" and "extirpate" about tribes who resisted American expansion and were willing to fight for their lands.
The Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removals 1813–1855.
The idea of land exchange, that Native Americans would give up their land east of the Mississippi in exchange for a similar amount of territory west of the river, was first proposed by Jefferson in 1803 and first incorporated into treaties in 1817 (years after the Jefferson presidency).
In an 1803 letter to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson wrote: In that letter, Jefferson spoke about protecting the Indians from injustices perpetrated by whites: According to the treaty of February 27, 1819, the U.S.
Army and Illinois militia defeated Black Hawk and his warriors in the Black Hawk War, and the Sauk and Fox were relocated to present-day Iowa. Tribes further east, such as the already-displaced Lenape (Delaware tribe), Kickapoo and Shawnee, were removed from Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio during the 1820s.
Monroe approved Calhoun's plans by late 1824 and, in a special message to the Senate on January 27, 1825, requested the creation of the Arkansaw and Indian Territories; the Indians east of the Mississippi would voluntarily exchange their lands for lands west of the river.
Monroe approved Calhoun's plans by late 1824 and, in a special message to the Senate on January 27, 1825, requested the creation of the Arkansaw and Indian Territories; the Indians east of the Mississippi would voluntarily exchange their lands for lands west of the river.
On July 26, 1827, the Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution (modeled on that of the United States) which declared that they were an independent nation with jurisdiction over their own lands.
"The rhetoric of removal and the trail of tears: Cherokee speaking against Jackson's Indian removal policy, 1828–1832" Southern Speech Communication Journal (1982).
The Indian Removal Act, the key law which authorized the removal of Native tribes, was signed by Andrew Jackson in 1830.
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 included this concept. ==John C.
Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law on May 30, 1830. That year, most of the Five Civilized Tribes—the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee—lived east of the Mississippi.
Although the act did not authorize the forced removal of indigenous tribes, it enabled the president to negotiate land-exchange treaties. ===Choctaw=== On September 27, 1830, the Choctaw signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek and became the first Native American tribe to be removed.
When the tribe reached Little Rock, a chief called its trek a "trail of tears and death". In 1831, French historian and political scientist Alexis de Tocqueville witnessed an exhausted group of Choctaw men, women and children emerging from the forest during an exceptionally cold winter near Memphis, Tennessee, on their way to the Mississippi to be loaded onto a steamboat.
The Georgia legislature passed a law forbidding whites from living on Indian territory after March 31, 1831, without a license from the state; this excluded white missionaries who opposed Indian removal. ===Seminole=== The Seminole refused to leave their Florida lands in 1835, leading to the Second Seminole War.
The Creek national council signed the Treaty of Cusseta in 1832, ceding their remaining lands east of the Mississippi to the U.S.
In 1832, the Sauk leader Black Hawk led a band of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois; the U.S.
Congress passed the Indian Nonintercourse Act (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes. ==Jeffersonian policy== As president, Thomas Jefferson developed a far-reaching Indian policy with two primary goals.
Most Muscogee were removed to the territory during the Trail of Tears in 1834, although some remained behind.
The best-known example is the Treaty of New Echota, which was signed by a small faction of twenty Cherokee tribal members (not the tribal leadership) on December 29, 1835.
The Georgia legislature passed a law forbidding whites from living on Indian territory after March 31, 1831, without a license from the state; this excluded white missionaries who opposed Indian removal. ===Seminole=== The Seminole refused to leave their Florida lands in 1835, leading to the Second Seminole War.
Although the Creek War of 1836 ended government attempts to convince the Creek population to leave voluntarily, Creeks who had not participated in the war were not forced west (as others were).
The detachments began moving west in September 1836, facing harsh conditions.
They reached an agreement to purchase of land from the previously-removed Choctaw in 1836 after a bitter five-year debate, paying the Chocktaw $530,000 for the westernmost Choctaw land.
In 1837, Osceola was duplicitously captured by order of U.S.
Most of the Chickasaw moved in 1837 and 1838.
Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote the widely-published letter "A Protest Against the Removal of the Cherokee Indians from the State of Georgia" in 1838, shortly before the Cherokee removal.
Most of the Cherokee later blamed the faction and the treaty for the tribe's forced relocation in 1838.
Most of the Chickasaw moved in 1837 and 1838.
The Potawatomi were forced out of Wisconsin and Michigan in late 1838, and were resettled in Kansas Territory.
Many Miami were resettled in the Indian Territory during the 1840s.
signed treaties with the Senecas and the Tonawanda Senecas in 1842 and 1857, respectively.
signed treaties with the Senecas and the Tonawanda Senecas in 1842 and 1857, respectively.
Under the treaty of 1857, the Tonawandas renounced all claim to lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for the right to buy back the Tonawanda Reservation from the Ogden Land Company.
The case was not resolved until 1898, when the United States awarded $1,998,714.46 in compensation to "the New York Indians".
In 1969, Francis Paul Prucha wrote that Jackson's removal of the Five Civilized Tribes from the hostile white environment of the Old South to Oklahoma probably saved them.
Jackson was sharply attacked by political scientist Michael Rogin and historian Howard Zinn during the 1970s, primarily on this issue; Zinn called him an "exterminator of Indians".
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