His father Hugh, an unsuccessful merchant, had married John's mother, Helen Shaw, on 21 October 1811.
Sir John Alexander Macdonald (10 or 11 January 1815 – 6 June 1891) was the first prime minister of Canada (1867–1873, 1878–1891).
Historical rankings in surveys of experts in Canadian political history have consistently placed Macdonald as one of the highest-rated Prime Ministers in Canadian history. ==Early years, 1815–1830 == John Alexander Macdonald was born in Ramshorn parish in Glasgow, Scotland, on 10 (official record) or 11 (father's journal) January 1815.
After Hugh's business ventures left him in debt, the family immigrated to Kingston, in Upper Canada (today the southern and eastern portions of Ontario), in 1820, where there were already a number of relatives and connections. The family initially lived with another, but then resided over a store which Hugh Macdonald ran.
His father, in 1829, was appointed a magistrate for the Midland District.
Nevertheless, Macdonald later regretted leaving school when he did, remarking to his secretary Joseph Pope that if he had attended university, he might have embarked on a literary career. ==Legal career, 1830–1843 == ===Legal training and early career, 1830–1837 === Macdonald's parents decided he should become a lawyer after leaving school.
British North America had no law schools in 1830; students were examined when beginning and ending their tutelage.
Macdonald was a promising student, and in the summer of 1833, managed the Mackenzie office when his employer went on a business trip to Montreal and Quebec in Lower Canada (today the southern portion of the province of Quebec).
"From the age of 15, I began to earn my own living." Macdonald travelled by steamboat to Toronto (known until 1834 as York), where he passed an examination set by The Law Society of Upper Canada, including mathematics, Latin, and history.
Later that year, Macdonald was sent to manage the law office of a Mackenzie cousin who had fallen ill. In August 1834, George Mackenzie died of cholera.
In 1835, Macdonald returned to Kingston, and even though not yet of age nor qualified, began his practice as a lawyer, hoping to gain his former employer's clients.
Macdonald's parents and sisters also returned to Kingston, and Hugh Macdonald became a bank clerk. Soon after Macdonald was called to the Bar in February 1836, he arranged to take in two students; both became, like Macdonald, Fathers of Confederation.
And, while there, he was learning the arts of argument and of persuasion that would serve him all his political life. ===Professional prominence, 1837–1843 === All male Upper Canadians between 18 and 60 years of age were members of the Sedentary Militia, which was called into active duty during the Rebellions of 1837.
All the Kingston defendants were acquitted, and a local paper described Macdonald as "one of the youngest barristers in the Province [who] is rapidly rising in his profession". In late 1838, Macdonald agreed to advise one of a group of American raiders who had crossed the border to liberate Canada from what they saw as the yoke of British colonial oppression.
According to Macdonald biographer Donald Swainson, "By 1838, Macdonald's position was secure.
Throughout the 1840s, Macdonald invested heavily in real estate, including commercial properties in downtown Toronto.
Bellevue House in Kingston, where the Macdonald family lived in the 1840s, is also a National Historic Site administered by Parks Canada, and has been restored to that time period.
Macdonald in Victoria Park citing that the "statue overlooks the negative impacts Macdonald's policies and initiatives have had on Indigenous peoples." The statue will be put into storage while the city does public consultations to find a new location. Historian Constance Backhouse has written that Macdonald appealed to anti-black racism and anti-Americanism to justify retaining the death penalty for rape, though unenforced since the early 1840s.
Meanwhile, he was suffering from some illness, and in 1841, his father died.
He also suffered what he termed his first downfall, as his supporters, carrying the victorious candidate, accidentally dropped him onto a slushy street. The British Parliament had merged Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada effective in 1841.
Sick and grieving, he decided to take a lengthy holiday in Britain in early 1842.
In late 1842, Isabella journeyed to Kingston to visit with a sister.
The visit stretched for nearly a year before John and Isabella Macdonald married on 1 September 1843. ==Political rise, 1843–1864 == ===Parliamentary advancement, 1843–1857 === In February 1843, Macdonald announced his candidacy for the post of alderman in Kingston's Fourth Ward.
On 29 March 1843, Macdonald celebrated his first election victory, with 156 votes against 43 for his opponent, Colonel Jackson.
As a lawyer, he was involved in several high-profile cases and quickly became prominent in Kingston, which elected him in 1844 to the legislature of the Province of Canada.
In March 1844, Macdonald was asked by local businessmen to stand as Conservative candidate for Kingston in the upcoming legislative election.
In the era preceding the secret ballot when votes were publicly declared, Macdonald defeated his opponent, Anthony Manahan, by 275 "shouts" to 42 when the two-day election concluded on 15 October 1844.
Instead, he found a niche in becoming an expert on election law and parliamentary procedure. In 1844, Isabella fell ill.
John Macdonald took his wife to Savannah, Georgia, in the United States in 1845, hoping that the sea air and warmth would cure her ailments.
He visited her again in New York at the end of 1846, and returned several months later when she informed him she was pregnant.
In 1846, he was made a Queen's Counsel.
In August 1847 their son John Alexander Macdonald Jr.
In 1847, the Joint Premier, William Henry Draper, appointed Macdonald as Receiver General.
When elections were held in December 1848 and January 1849, Macdonald was easily reelected for Kingston, but the Conservatives lost seats and were forced to resign when the legislature reconvened in March 1848.
When elections were held in December 1848 and January 1849, Macdonald was easily reelected for Kingston, but the Conservatives lost seats and were forced to resign when the legislature reconvened in March 1848.
In March 1850, Isabella Macdonald gave birth to another boy, Hugh John Macdonald, and his father wrote, "We have got Johnny back again, almost his image." Macdonald began to drink heavily around this time, both in public and in private, which Patricia Phenix, who studied Macdonald's private life, attributes to his family troubles. The Liberals, or Grits, maintained power in the 1851 election, but soon, they were divided by a parliamentary scandal.
In an effort to give the appearance of fairness, Head insisted that Cartier be titular premier, with Macdonald as his deputy. In the late 1850s and early 1860s, Canada enjoyed a period of great prosperity.
In March 1850, Isabella Macdonald gave birth to another boy, Hugh John Macdonald, and his father wrote, "We have got Johnny back again, almost his image." Macdonald began to drink heavily around this time, both in public and in private, which Patricia Phenix, who studied Macdonald's private life, attributes to his family troubles. The Liberals, or Grits, maintained power in the 1851 election, but soon, they were divided by a parliamentary scandal.
The coalition which came to power in 1854 became known as the Liberal-Conservatives (referred to, for short, as the Conservatives).
In 1855, George-Étienne Cartier of Canada East (today Quebec) joined the Cabinet.
In 1856, MacNab was eased out as premier by Macdonald, who became the leader of the Canada West Conservatives.
Bernard was the sister of Macdonald's private secretary, Hewitt Bernard; the couple first met in Quebec in 1860, but Macdonald had seen and admired her as early as 1856.
By 1857, he had become premier under the colony's unstable political system. In 1864, when no party proved capable of governing for long, Macdonald agreed to a proposal from his political rival, George Brown, that the parties unite in a Great Coalition to seek federation and political reform.
Though the most powerful man in the government he remained as Attorney General, with Sir Étienne-Paschal Taché as premier. ===Colonial leader, 1858–1864 === In July 1857, Macdonald departed for Britain to promote Canadian government projects.
Macdonald had opposed that, and used his power to force the Assembly to reconsider in 1857.
Though the most powerful man in the government he remained as Attorney General, with Sir Étienne-Paschal Taché as premier. ===Colonial leader, 1858–1864 === In July 1857, Macdonald departed for Britain to promote Canadian government projects.
In February 1858, the Queen's choice was announced, much to the dismay of many legislators from both parts of the province: the isolated Canada West town of Ottawa. On 28 July 1858, an opposition Canada East member proposed an address to the Queen informing her that Ottawa was an unsuitable place for a national capital.
In an effort to give the appearance of fairness, Head insisted that Cartier be titular premier, with Macdonald as his deputy. In the late 1850s and early 1860s, Canada enjoyed a period of great prosperity.
Bernard was the sister of Macdonald's private secretary, Hewitt Bernard; the couple first met in Quebec in 1860, but Macdonald had seen and admired her as early as 1856.
John Macdonald's mother was a lifelong influence on her son, helping him in his difficult first marriage and remaining a force in his life until her 1862 death. John initially attended local schools.
Britain asked the Canadians to pay a part of the expense of defence, and a Militia Bill was introduced in the Assembly in 1862.
The new government fell in May 1863, but Head allowed a new election, which made little change to party strength.
In December 1863, Canada West MP Albert Norton Richards accepted the post of Solicitor-General, and so had to face a by-election.
By 1857, he had become premier under the colony's unstable political system. In 1864, when no party proved capable of governing for long, Macdonald agreed to a proposal from his political rival, George Brown, that the parties unite in a Great Coalition to seek federation and political reform.
The parties were deadlocked to such an extent that, according to Swainson, "It was clear to everybody that the constitution of the Province of Canada was dead". ==Confederation of Canada, 1864–1867== As his government had fallen again, Macdonald approached the new governor general, Lord Monck, and obtained a dissolution.
A conference, called by the Colonial Office, was scheduled for 1 September 1864 in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island; the Maritimes were to consider a union.
At its conclusion, the Maritime delegations expressed a willingness to join a confederation if the details could be worked out. In October 1864, delegates for confederation met in Quebec City for the Quebec Conference, where the Seventy-Two Resolutions were agreed to—they would form the basis of Canada's government.
The Great Coalition was endangered by Taché's 1865 death: Lord Monck asked Macdonald to become premier, but Brown felt that he had as good a claim on the position as his coalition partner.
The disagreement was resolved by appointing another compromise candidate to serve as titular premier, Narcisse-Fortunat Belleau. In 1865, after lengthy debates, Canada's legislative assembly approved confederation by 91 votes to 33.
In 1866, Macdonald and his colleagues financed pro-confederation candidates in the New Brunswick general election, resulting in a pro-confederation assembly.
Maritime delegates left for London in July 1866, but Macdonald, who was drinking heavily again, did not leave until November, angering the Maritimers.
In December 1866, Macdonald both led the London Conference, winning acclaim for his handling of the discussions, and wooed and won his second wife, Agnes Bernard.
The withdrawal of the Americans in 1866 from the Reciprocity Treaty had increased tariffs on Canadian goods in US markets.
Macdonald was the leading figure in the subsequent discussions and conferences, which resulted in the British North America Act, 1867 and the birth of Canada as a nation on 1 July 1867.
In January 1867, while still in London, he was seriously burned in his hotel room when his candle set fire to the chair he had fallen asleep in, but Macdonald refused to miss any sessions of the conference.
On 8 March, the British North America Act, 1867, which would thereafter serve as the major part of Canada's constitution, passed the House of Commons (it had previously passed the House of Lords).
Queen Victoria gave the bill Royal Assent on 29 March 1867. Macdonald had favoured the union coming into force on 15 July, fearing that the preparations would not be completed any earlier.
Macdonald was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) on that first observance of what came to be known as Dominion Day, later Canada Day, 1 July 1867. ==Prime Minister of Canada== Canada's economic growth was quite slow at only 1% annually 1867–1896.
Macdonald's solution was to build the transcontinental railway to stimulate growth, and to implement a "National Policy" of high tariffs that would protect the small Canadian firms from American competition. ===First majority, 1867–1871=== Macdonald and his government faced immediate problems upon formation of the new country.
American and British opinion was that the experiment of Confederation would quickly unravel, and the nascent nation absorbed by the United States. In August 1867, the new nation's first general election was held; Macdonald's party won easily, with strong support in both large provinces, and a majority from New Brunswick.
Parliament convened in November, surprisingly without Brown, who was defeated in Ontario and never served as a member of the House of Commons of Canada. By 1869, Nova Scotia had agreed to remain part of Canada after a promise of better financial terms—the first of many provinces to negotiate concessions from Ottawa.
Pressure from London and Ottawa failed to gain the accession of Newfoundland, whose voters rejected a Confederation platform in a general election in October 1869. In 1869, John and Agnes Macdonald had a daughter, Mary.
In May 1870, John Macdonald fell ill with gallstones; coupled with his frequent drinking, he may have developed a severe case of acute pancreatitis.
Unwilling to pay for a territory in insurrection, Macdonald had troops put down the uprising before 15 July 1870 formal transfer, but as a result of the unrest, the Red River Colony joined Confederation as the province of Manitoba, while the rest of the purchased lands became the North-West Territories.
Negotiations were conducted in 1870, principally during Macdonald's illness and recuperation, with Cartier leading the Canadian delegation.
Negotiations between the Métis and the Government to settle grievances over land rights proved difficult, Riel had lived in exile in the United States since 1870, he journeyed to Regina with the connivance of Macdonald's government, who believed he would prove a leader they could deal with.
The British Columbians, who privately had been prepared to accept far less generous terms, quickly agreed and joined Confederation in 1871.
The Canadian Parliament ratified the terms after a debate over the high cost that cabinet member Alexander Morris described as the worst fight the Conservatives had had since Confederation. There were continuing disputes with the Americans over deep-sea fishing rights, and in early 1871, an Anglo-American commission was appointed to settle outstanding matters between the British (and Canadians) and the Americans.
Macdonald returned home to defend the Treaty of Washington against a political firestorm. ===Second majority and Pacific Scandal, 1872–1873=== In the run-up to the 1872 election, Macdonald had yet to formulate a railway policy, or to devise the loan guarantees that would be needed to secure the construction.
Nevertheless, the greatest political problem Macdonald faced was the Washington treaty, which had not yet been debated in Parliament. In early 1872, Macdonald submitted the treaty for ratification, and it passed the Commons with a majority of 66.
The Liberals (as the Grits were coming to be known) did better than the Conservatives in Ontario, forcing the government to rely on the votes of Western and Maritime MPs who did not fully support the party. Macdonald had hoped to award the charter for the Canadian Pacific Railway in early 1872, but negotiations dragged on between the government and the financiers.
Macdonald's government awarded the Allan group the charter in late 1872.
On 18 July, three papers published a telegram dated August 1872 from Macdonald requesting another $10,000 and promising "it will be the last time of asking".
Macdonald was the first Prime Minister of the new nation, and served 19 years; only William Lyon Mackenzie King served longer. In 1873, he resigned from office over a scandal in which his party took bribes from businessmen seeking the contract to build the Canadian Pacific Railway.
Until Cartier's 1873 death, he would be Macdonald's political partner.
The island joined Confederation in 1873. Macdonald had once been tepid on the question of westward expansion of the Canadian provinces; as Prime Minister, he became a strong supporter of a bicoastal Canada.
In 1873, when Parliament opened, Liberal MP Lucius Seth Huntington charged that government ministers had been bribed with large, undisclosed political contributions to award the charter.
During the campaign Cartier had fallen ill with Bright's disease, which may have been causing his judgment to lapse; he died in May 1873 while seeking treatment in London. Even before Cartier's death, Macdonald attempted to use delay to extricate the government.
When Macdonald announced his resignation in the Commons, Conservative and Liberal MPs traded places on the benches of the House of Commons, though one Conservative MP, British Columbia's Amor De Cosmos remained in his place, thereby joining the Liberals. On 6 November 1873, Macdonald offered his resignation as party leader to his caucus; it was refused.
According to Swainson, most observers viewed Macdonald as finished in politics, "a used-up and dishonoured man". ===Opposition, 1873–1878=== Macdonald was content to lead the Conservatives in a relaxed manner in opposition and await Liberal mistakes.
The Panic of 1873 had led to a worldwide depression; the Liberals found it difficult to finance the railway in such a climate, and were generally opposed to the line anyway—the slow pace of construction led to British Columbia claims that the agreement under which it had entered Confederation was in jeopardy of being broken. By 1876, Macdonald and the Conservatives had adopted protection as party policy.
Mackenzie called an election for January 1874; the Conservatives were reduced to 70 seats out of the 206 in the Commons, giving Mackenzie a massive majority.
One mistake that Macdonald believed the Liberals had made was a free-trade agreement with Washington, negotiated in 1874; Macdonald had come to believe that protection was necessary to build Canadian industry.
Despite the success, Macdonald considered retirement, wishing only to reverse the voters' verdict of 1874—he considered Charles Tupper his heir apparent. When Parliament convened in 1877, the Conservatives were confident and the Liberals defensive.
The Panic of 1873 had led to a worldwide depression; the Liberals found it difficult to finance the railway in such a climate, and were generally opposed to the line anyway—the slow pace of construction led to British Columbia claims that the agreement under which it had entered Confederation was in jeopardy of being broken. By 1876, Macdonald and the Conservatives had adopted protection as party policy.
This view was widely promoted in speeches at a number of political picnics, held across Ontario during the summer of 1876.
By the end of 1876, the Tories had picked up 14 seats as a result of by-elections, reducing Mackenzie's Liberal majority from 70 to 42.
Despite the success, Macdonald considered retirement, wishing only to reverse the voters' verdict of 1874—he considered Charles Tupper his heir apparent. When Parliament convened in 1877, the Conservatives were confident and the Liberals defensive.
Sir John Alexander Macdonald (10 or 11 January 1815 – 6 June 1891) was the first prime minister of Canada (1867–1873, 1878–1891).
However, he was re-elected in 1878.
More picnics followed in 1878, promoting proposals which would come to be collectively called the "National Policy": high tariffs, rapid construction of the transcontinental railway (the Canadian Pacific Railway or CPR), rapid agricultural development of the West using the railway, and policies which would attract immigrants to Canada.
The altercation continued even after the Commons had been summoned to the Senate to hear the dissolution read, as Macdonald spoke the final words recorded in the 3rd Parliament: "That fellow Smith is the biggest liar I ever saw!" The election was called for 17 September 1878.
Macdonald was duly returned for Victoria, although he had never visited either Marquette or Victoria. ===Third and fourth majorities, 1878–1887=== Part of the National Policy was implemented in the budget presented in February 1879.
Macdonald was duly returned for Victoria, although he had never visited either Marquette or Victoria. ===Third and fourth majorities, 1878–1887=== Part of the National Policy was implemented in the budget presented in February 1879.
Macdonald continued to fight for higher tariffs for the remainder of his life. In January 1879, Macdonald commissioned politician Nicholas Flood Davin to write a report regarding the industrial boarding-school system in the United States.
Now known as the Davin Report, the Report on Industrial Schools for Indians and Half-Breeds was submitted to Ottawa on 14 March 1879, providing the basis for the Canadian Indian residential school system.
In 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission concluded that the assimilation amounted to cultural genocide. By the 1880s, Macdonald was becoming more frail, but he maintained his political acuity.
In 1880, Macdonald found a syndicate, led by George Stephen, willing to undertake the CPR project.
In 1880, the Dominion took over Britain's remaining Arctic territories, which extended Canada to its present-day boundaries, with the exception of Newfoundland, which would not enter Confederation until 1949.
Also in 1880, Canada sent its first diplomatic representative abroad, Sir Alexander Galt as High Commissioner to Britain.
Between 1880 and 1885, as the railway was slowly built, the CPR repeatedly came close to financial ruin.
The entire project was extremely costly, especially for a nation with only 4.1 million people in 1881.
With good economic times, Macdonald and the Conservatives were returned with a slightly decreased majority in 1882.
In 1883, Parliament approved $43,000 for three industrial schools and the first, Battleford Industrial School, opened on 1 December of that year.
In 1883, he secured the "Intoxicating Liquors Bill" which took the regulation system away from the provinces, in part to stymie his foe Premier Mowat.
He approved the execution of Métis leader Louis Riel for treason in 1885; it alienated many francophones from his Conservative Party.
Following the North-West Rebellion of 1885 Macdonald implemented restrictions upon the movement of indigenous groups, requiring them to receive formal permission from an Indian Department Official in order to go off reserve. Macdonald also wished to secure the colony of British Columbia.
Between 1880 and 1885, as the railway was slowly built, the CPR repeatedly came close to financial ruin.
On 7 November 1885, CPR manager William Van Horne who wired Macdonald from Craigellachie, British Columbia that the last spike was driven home. In 1885 Macdonald government enacted the Chinese Immigration Act, 1885.
Macdonald told the House of Commons that, if the Chinese were not excluded from Canada, "the Aryan character of the future of British America should be destroyed ". In the summer of 1886, Macdonald travelled for the only time to western Canada, travelling from town to town by private railway car, and addressing large crowds.
On 13 August 1886, Macdonald used a silver hammer and pounded a gold spike to complete the Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway. In 1886, another dispute arose over fishing rights with the United States.
During the campaign, Macdonald suffered another blow when the Quebec provincial Liberals were able to form a government (four months after the October 1886 Quebec election), forcing the Conservatives from power in Quebec City.
Macdonald finally dissolved Parliament on 15 January 1887 for an election on 22 February.
Sir John Alexander Macdonald (10 or 11 January 1815 – 6 June 1891) was the first prime minister of Canada (1867–1873, 1878–1891).
He continued as prime minister until his death in 1891. In the 21st century, Macdonald has come under criticism for his role in the Chinese Head Tax and federal policies towards Indigenous peoples, including his actions during the North-West Rebellion that resulted in Riel's execution, and the development of the residential school system designed to assimilate Indigenous children.
American advocates of what they dubbed "commercial union" saw it as a prelude to political union, and did not scruple to say so, causing additional controversy in Canada. Macdonald called an election for 5 March 1891.
"The Old Chieftain" lingered for days, remaining mentally alert, before dying in the late evening of Saturday, 6 June 1891.
By 1900, there were 61 schools in operation.
In 1880, the Dominion took over Britain's remaining Arctic territories, which extended Canada to its present-day boundaries, with the exception of Newfoundland, which would not enter Confederation until 1949.
As Donald Creighton (who penned a two-volume biography of Macdonald in the 1950s) wrote, "law was a broad, well-trodden path to comfort, influence, even to power".
He appears on Canadian ten-dollar notes printed between 1971 and 2018, and will be featured on either the $50 or $100 note when they are redesigned in the future.
Macdonald Parkway (River Parkway before 2012), Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport (renamed in 1993) and Ontario Highway 401 (the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway c.
In 2001, Parliament designated 11 January as Sir John A.
Macdonald Parkway (River Parkway before 2012), Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport (renamed in 1993) and Ontario Highway 401 (the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway c.
In 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission concluded that the assimilation amounted to cultural genocide. By the 1880s, Macdonald was becoming more frail, but he maintained his political acuity.
In 2015, the Royal Canadian Mint featured Macdonald's face on the Canadian two dollar coin, the Toonie, to celebrate his 200th birthday.
Swainson suggests that Macdonald's desire for a free and tolerant Canada became part of its national outlook: "He not only helped to create Canada, but contributed immeasurably to its character." Gwyn said of Macdonald, In 2017, the Canadian Historical Association had voted to remove Macdonald's name from their prize for best scholarly book about Canadian history.
He appears on Canadian ten-dollar notes printed between 1971 and 2018, and will be featured on either the $50 or $100 note when they are redesigned in the future.
But he built the country on the backs of the Indigenous people." A biographical online article about Macdonald was deleted from the Scottish government's website in August 2018.
A spokesperson for the Scottish government stated: "We acknowledge controversy around Sir John A Macdonald's legacy and the legitimate concerns expressed by Indigenous communities". In 2018, a statue of Macdonald was removed from outside Victoria City Hall, as part of the city's program for reconciliation with local First Nations.
Amid the Black Lives Matter social justice protests in 2020, many have called for the removal of statues honouring Macdonald due to his treatment of Indigenous peoples in Canada.
On 29 August 2020, the statue in the monument was vandalized, toppled and decapitated.
In March 2021, Regina city council voted 7–4 in favour of removal of the memorial of John A.
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