John Quincy Adams (; July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States, from 1825 to 1829.
Historians generally concur that Adams was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history; they typically rank him as an average president, as he had an ambitious agenda but could not get it passed by Congress. == Early life, education, and early career == John Quincy Adams was born on July 11, 1767, to John and Abigail Adams (née Smith) in a part of Braintree, Massachusetts that is now Quincy.
With his father's encouragement, Adams would also translate classical authors such as Virgil, Horace, Plutarch, and Aristotle. In 1778, Adams and his father departed for Europe, where John Adams would serve as part of American diplomatic missions in France and the Netherlands.
He soon began to exhibit his literary skills, and in 1779 he initiated a diary which he kept until just before he died in 1848.
The Diaries of John Quincy Adams, 1779–1821 (Library of America, 20170.
In 1781, Adams traveled to Saint Petersburg, Russia, where he served as the secretary of American diplomat Francis Dana.
He returned to the Netherlands in 1783, and accompanied his father to Great Britain in 1784.
He returned to the Netherlands in 1783, and accompanied his father to Great Britain in 1784.
Though Adams enjoyed Europe, he and his family decided he needed to return to the United States to complete his education and eventually launch a political career. Adams returned to the United States in 1785 and earned admission as a member of the junior class of Harvard College the following year.
He was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and excelled academically, graduating second in his class in 1787.
After graduating from Harvard, he studied law with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts, from 1787 to 1789.
After graduating from Harvard, he studied law with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts, from 1787 to 1789.
Adams initially opposed the ratification of the United States Constitution, but he ultimately came to accept the document, and in 1789 his father was elected as the first Vice President of the United States.
In 1790, Adams opened his own legal practice in Boston.
In 1791, he wrote a series of pseudonymously published essays arguing that Britain provided a better governmental model than France.
In 1794, President George Washington appointed Adams as the U.S.
In 1794, Washington appointed Adams as the U.S.
Adams supported the Jay Treaty, but it proved unpopular with many in the United States, contributing to a growing partisan split between the Federalist Party of Alexander Hamilton and the Democratic-Republican Party of Thomas Jefferson. Adams spent the winter of 1795–1796 in London, where he met Louisa Catherine Johnson, the second daughter of American merchant Joshua Johnson.
In April 1796, Louisa accepted Adams's proposal of marriage.
Nonetheless, Adams noted in his own diary that he had no regrets about his decision to marry Louisa. In 1796, Washington appointed Adams as the U.S.
Later in that same year, John Adams defeated Jefferson in the 1796 presidential election.
president from 1797 to 1801, and First Lady Abigail Adams.
Adams initially wanted to delay his wedding to Louisa until he returned to the United States, but they were married in All Hallows-by-the-Tower in July 1797.
His biographer, Nagel, concludes that his mother's disapproval of Louisa Johnson motivated him to marry Johnson in 1797, despite Adams's reservations that Johnson, like his mother, had a strong personality. Though Adams wore a powdered wig in his youth, he abandoned this fashion and became the first president to adopt a short haircut instead of long hair tied in a queue and to regularly wear long trousers instead of knee breeches.
In 1799, Adams negotiated a new trade agreement between the United States and Prussia, though he was never able to complete an agreement with Sweden.
In the 1800 presidential election, Jefferson defeated John Adams, and both Adams and his son left office in early 1801. === U.S.
Like his Federalist colleagues, he opposed the impeachment of Associate Justice Samuel Chase, an outspoken supporter of the Federalist Party. Adams had strongly opposed Jefferson's 1800 presidential candidacy, but he gradually became alienated from the Federalist Party.
president from 1797 to 1801, and First Lady Abigail Adams.
ambassador to the Netherlands, and Adams would serve in high-ranking diplomatic posts until 1801, when Thomas Jefferson took office as president.
He frequently wrote to family members in the United States, and in 1801 his letters about the Prussian region of Silesia were published in a book titled Letters on Silesia.
In the 1800 presidential election, Jefferson defeated John Adams, and both Adams and his son left office in early 1801. === U.S.
Federalist leaders in Massachusetts arranged for Adams's election to the United States Senate in 1802, but Adams broke with the Federalist Party over foreign policy and was denied re-election.
Senator from Massachusetts === On his return to the United States, Adams re-established a legal practice in Boston, and in April 1802 he was elected to the Massachusetts Senate.
In February 1803, the Massachusetts legislature elected Adams to the United States Senate.
Adams was the lone Federalist in Congress to vote for the Non-importation Act of 1806, which was designed to punish Britain for its attacks on American shipping during the ongoing Napoleonic Wars.
After Adams supported the Embargo Act of 1807, the Federalist-controlled Massachusetts legislature elected Adams's successor several months before the end of his term and Adams resigned from the Senate shortly thereafter. While a member of the Senate, Adams served as a professor of logic at Brown University and as the Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard University.
In 1809, Adams was appointed as the U.S.
In 1809, he argued before the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Fletcher v.
Later that year, President James Madison appointed Adams as the first United States Minister to Russia in 1809.
Petersburg in October 1809.
In February 1811, Adams was nominated by President Madison as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court.
Their daughter, Louisa, was born in 1811 but died in 1812.
Adams held diplomatic posts for the duration of Madison's presidency, and he served as part of the American delegation that negotiated an end to the War of 1812.
The nomination was unanimously confirmed by the Senate, but Adams declined the seat, preferring a career in politics and diplomacy, so Joseph Story took the seat instead. === Treaty of Ghent and ambassador to Britain === Adams had long feared that the United States would enter a war it could not win against Britain, and by early 1812 he saw such a war as inevitable due to the constant British attacks on American shipping and the British practice of impressment.
In mid-1812, the United States declared war against Britain, beginning the War of 1812.
He also sought to avoid exacerbating sectional tensions, which had been a major issue for the country during the War of 1812.
Adams developed a strong respect for Calhoun but believed that Crawford was unduly focused on succeeding Monroe in 1824. During his time as ambassador to Britain, Adams had begun negotiations over several contentious issues that had not been solved by the War of 1812 or the Treaty of Ghent.
Because the Federalist Party had all but collapsed after the War of 1812, all the major presidential candidates were members of the Democratic-Republican Party.
Their daughter, Louisa, was born in 1811 but died in 1812.
Petersburg in July 1813, but the British declined Tsar Alexander's offer of mediation.
Hoping to commence the negotiations at another venue, Adams left Russia in April 1814.
By November 1814, the government of Lord Liverpool decided to seek an end to hostilities with the U.S.
The treaty was signed on December 24, 1814.
Following the signing of the treaty, Adams traveled to Paris, where he witnessed first-hand the Hundred Days of Napoleon's restoration. In May 1815, Adams learned that President Madison had appointed him as the U.S.
The United States had reached a commercial agreement with Britain in 1815, but that agreement excluded British possessions in the Western Hemisphere.
He previously served as the eighth United States Secretary of State from 1817 to 1825.
In 1817, newly elected president James Monroe selected Adams as his Secretary of State.
Having spent several years in Europe, Adams returned to the United States in August 1817. == Secretary of State (1817–1825) == Adams served as Secretary of State throughout Monroe's eight-year presidency, from 1817 to 1825.
In 1817, the two countries agreed to the Rush–Bagot Treaty, which limited naval armaments on the Great Lakes.
In 1818, Adams was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. The 1824 presidential election was contested by Adams, Andrew Jackson, William H.
Many of his successes as secretary, such as the convention of 1818 with Great Britain, the Transcontinental Treaty with Spain, and the Monroe Doctrine, were not preplanned strategy but responses to unexpected events.
Negotiations between the two powers continued, resulting in the Treaty of 1818, which defined the Canada–United States border west of the Great Lakes.
The negotiations were interrupted by an escalation of the Seminole War, and in December 1818, Monroe ordered General Andrew Jackson to enter Florida and retaliate against Seminoles that had raided Georgia.
In addition to his foreign policy role, Adams held several domestic duties, including overseeing the 1820 Census. Monroe and Adams agreed on most of the major foreign policy issues: both favored neutrality in the Latin American wars of independence, peace with Great Britain, denial of a trade agreement with the French, and expansion, peacefully if possible, into the North American territories of the Spanish Empire.
Adams was denounced in the South, and he received little credit for the tariff in the North. ==== Indian policy ==== Adams sought the gradual assimilation of Native Americans via consensual agreements, a priority shared by few whites in the 1820s.
He wrote in his private journal in 1820: In 1836, partially in response to Adams's consistent presentation of citizen petitions requesting the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, the House of Representatives imposed a "gag rule" that immediately tabled any petitions about slavery.
After extended negotiations, Spain and the United States agreed to the Adams–Onís Treaty, which was ratified in February 1821.
In 1822, following the conclusion of the Adams–Onís Treaty, the Monroe administration recognized the independence of several Latin American countries, including Argentina and Mexico.
In 1823, British Foreign Secretary George Canning suggested that the United States and Britain should work together to preserve the independence of these fledgling republics.
In his December 1823 annual message to Congress, Monroe laid out the Monroe Doctrine, which was largely built upon Adams's ideas.
In response to United States pressure, the British had begun to allow a limited amount of American imports to the West Indies in 1823, but United States leaders continued to seek an end to Britain's protective Imperial Preference system.
In 1818, Adams was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. The 1824 presidential election was contested by Adams, Andrew Jackson, William H.
Adams developed a strong respect for Calhoun but believed that Crawford was unduly focused on succeeding Monroe in 1824. During his time as ambassador to Britain, Adams had begun negotiations over several contentious issues that had not been solved by the War of 1812 or the Treaty of Ghent.
In 1824, the Monroe administration would further bolster United States claims to Oregon by reaching the Russo-American Treaty of 1824, which set the southern border of Russian Alaska at the parallel 54°40′ north. === Monroe Doctrine === As the Spanish Empire continued to fracture during Monroe's second term, Adams and Monroe became increasingly concerned that the "Holy Alliance" of Prussia, Austria, and Russia would seek to bring Spain's erstwhile colonies under their control.
foreign policy. == 1824 presidential election == Immediately upon becoming Secretary of State, Adams emerged as one of Monroe's most likely successors, as the last three presidents had all served in the role at some point before taking office.
As the 1824 election approached, Henry Clay, John C.
However, as the 1824 election approached, Jackson jumped into the race for president.
The congressional nominating caucus had decided upon previous Democratic-Republican presidential nominees, but it had become largely discredited by 1824.
The regional strength of each candidate played an important role in the election; Adams was popular in New England, Clay and Jackson were strong in the West, and Jackson and Crawford competed for the South. In the 1824 presidential election, Jackson won a plurality in the Electoral College, taking 99 of the 261 electoral votes, while Adams won 84, Crawford won 41, and Clay took 37.
Adams chose Henry Clay as Secretary of State, angering those who believed that Clay had offered his support in the 1824 election for the most prestigious position in the cabinet.
Between 1824 and 1828, the United States Army Corps of Engineers conducted surveys for a bevy of potential roads, canals, railroads, and improvements in river navigation.
By 1828, only two states did not hold a popular vote for president, and the number of votes in the 1828 election was triple that in the 1824 election.
Adams is remembered as a man eminently qualified for the presidency, yet hopelessly weakened in his presidential leadership potential because of the 1824 election.
John Quincy Adams (; July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States, from 1825 to 1829.
He previously served as the eighth United States Secretary of State from 1817 to 1825.
Having spent several years in Europe, Adams returned to the United States in August 1817. == Secretary of State (1817–1825) == Adams served as Secretary of State throughout Monroe's eight-year presidency, from 1817 to 1825.
On February 9, 1825, Adams won the contingent election on the first ballot, taking 13 of the 24 state delegations.
After the election, many of Jackson's supporters claimed that Adams and Clay had reached a "Corrupt Bargain" whereby Adams promised Clay the position of Secretary of State in return for Clay's support. == Presidency (1825–1829) == === Inauguration === Adams was inaugurated on March 4, 1825.
Though Clay would later regret accepting the position since it reinforced the "Corrupt Bargain" accusation, Clay's strength in the West and interest in foreign policy made him a natural choice for the top cabinet position. === Domestic affairs === ==== Ambitious agenda ==== In his 1825 annual message to Congress, Adams presented a comprehensive and ambitious agenda.
Though many of these projects were undertaken by private actors, the government often provided money or land to aid the completion of such projects. === Formation of political parties === In the immediate aftermath of the 1825 contingent election, Jackson was gracious to Adams.
In 1825, Jackson accepted the presidential nomination of the Tennessee legislature for the 1828 election.
Adams's ambitious December 1825 annual message to Congress further galvanized the opposition, with important figures such as Francis Preston Blair of Kentucky and Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri breaking with the Adams administration.
In 1825, Britain banned United States trade with the British West Indies, dealing a blow to Adams's prestige.
In the press, they were often described as "Adams Men" and "Jackson Men". In the 1826 elections, Adams's opponents picked up seats throughout the country, as allies of Adams failed to coordinate among themselves.
Adams signed a new treaty with the Muscogee in January 1826 that allowed the Muscogee to stay but ceded most of their land to Georgia.
As part of this goal, the administration favored sending a United States delegation to the Congress of Panama, an 1826 conference of New World republics organized by Simón Bolívar.
After Jacksonians took power in 1827, they devised a tariff bill designed to appeal to Western states while instituting high rates on imported materials important to the economy of New England.
In early 1827, Jackson was publicly accused of having encouraged his wife, Rachel, to desert her first husband.
The Democrats proved to be more effective political organizers than Adams and his National Republican supporters, and Jackson decisively defeated Adams in the 1828 presidential election, the second president (after his father) to fail re-election. Rather than retiring from public service, Adams won election to the House of Representatives, where he would serve from 1831 to his death in 1848.
Between 1824 and 1828, the United States Army Corps of Engineers conducted surveys for a bevy of potential roads, canals, railroads, and improvements in river navigation.
In 1825, Jackson accepted the presidential nomination of the Tennessee legislature for the 1828 election.
After the elections, Van Buren and Calhoun agreed to throw their support behind Jackson in 1828, with Van Buren bringing along many of Crawford's supporters.
Adams, meanwhile, clung to the hope of a non-partisan nation, and he refused to make full use of the power of patronage to build up his own party structure. ==== Tariff of 1828 ==== During the first half of his administration, Adams avoided taking a strong stand on tariffs, partly because he wanted to avoid alienating his allies in the South and New England.
Regardless, Adams signed the Tariff of 1828, which became known as the "Tariff of Abominations" by opponents.
Though the United States delegation finally won confirmation from the Senate, it never reached the Congress of Panama due to the Senate's delay. === 1828 presidential election === The Jacksonians formed an effective party apparatus that adopted many modern campaign techniques.
The 1828 election thus marked the first time in United States history that a presidential ticket composed of two Northerners faced off against a presidential ticket composed of two Southerners.
By 1828, only two states did not hold a popular vote for president, and the number of votes in the 1828 election was triple that in the 1824 election.
Adams did not attend Jackson's inauguration, making him one of only four presidents who finished their terms but chose to skip the event. == Later congressional career (1830–1848) == === Jackson administration, 1830–1836 === Adams considered permanently retiring from public life after his 1828 defeat, and he was deeply hurt by the suicide of his son, George Washington Adams, in 1829.
Though they had once maintained a cordial relationship, Adams and Jackson each came to loathe the other in the decades after the 1828 election.
As chairman of the committee charged with writing tariff laws, Adams became an important player in the Nullification crisis, which stemmed largely from Southern objections to the high rates imposed by the Tariff of 1828.
John Quincy Adams (; July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States, from 1825 to 1829.
Adams did not attend Jackson's inauguration, making him one of only four presidents who finished their terms but chose to skip the event. == Later congressional career (1830–1848) == === Jackson administration, 1830–1836 === Adams considered permanently retiring from public life after his 1828 defeat, and he was deeply hurt by the suicide of his son, George Washington Adams, in 1829.
Texas had largely been settled by Americans from the Southern United States, and many of those settlers owned slaves despite an 1829 Mexican law that abolished slavery.
In 1829, British scientist James Smithson died, and he left his fortune for the "increase and diffusion of knowledge".
George, who had long suffered from alcoholism, died in 1829 after going overboard on a steamboat; it is not clear whether he fell or purposely jumped from the boat.
Narrowly failing attempts at Governor of Massachusetts and re-election to the Senate, Adams joined the Anti-Masonic Party in the early 1830s before becoming a member of the Whig Party, which united those opposed to President Jackson.
Adams did not attend Jackson's inauguration, making him one of only four presidents who finished their terms but chose to skip the event. == Later congressional career (1830–1848) == === Jackson administration, 1830–1836 === Adams considered permanently retiring from public life after his 1828 defeat, and he was deeply hurt by the suicide of his son, George Washington Adams, in 1829.
Adams grew bored of his retirement and still felt that his career was unfinished, so he ran for and won a seat in the United States House of Representatives in the 1830 elections.
After 1846, ill health increasingly affected Adams, but he continued to oppose the Mexican–American War until his death in 1848. === Anti-slavery movement === In the 1830s, slavery emerged as an increasingly polarizing issue in the United States.
The Democrats proved to be more effective political organizers than Adams and his National Republican supporters, and Jackson decisively defeated Adams in the 1828 presidential election, the second president (after his father) to fail re-election. Rather than retiring from public service, Adams won election to the House of Representatives, where he would serve from 1831 to his death in 1848.
Nonetheless, he would win election to nine terms, serving from 1831 until his death in 1848.
Adams helped pass the Tariff of 1832, which lowered rates, but not enough to mollify the South Carolina nullifiers.
The crisis was ended when Clay and Calhoun agreed to another tariff bill, the Tariff of 1833, that furthered lower tariff rates.
After the crisis, Adams increasingly came to believe that Southerners exercised an undue degree of influence over the federal government, largely through their control of Jackson's Democratic Party. The Anti-Masonic Party nominated Adams in the 1833 Massachusetts gubernatorial election in a four-way race between Adams, the National Republican candidate, the Democratic candidate, and a candidate of the Working Men's Party.
John, who ran an unprofitable flour and grist mill owned by his father, died of an unknown illness in 1834.
Adams was nearly elected to the Senate in 1835 by a coalition of Anti-Masons and National Republicans, but his support for Jackson in a minor foreign policy matter annoyed National Republican leaders enough that they dropped their support for his candidacy.
After 1835, Adams never again sought higher office, focusing instead on his service in the House of Representatives. === Van Buren and Tyler administrations, 1837–1843 === In the mid-1830s, the Anti-Masonic Party, the National Republicans, and other groups opposed to Jackson coalesced into the Whig Party.
Adams generally opposed the initiatives of President Van Buren, long a political adversary, though they maintained a cordial public relationship. The Republic of Texas won its independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution of 1835–1836.
After the nephew died without heirs in 1835, President Andrew Jackson informed Congress of the bequest, which amounted to about US$500,000 (US$75 million in 2008 dollars after inflation).
In the 1836 presidential election Democrats put forward Martin Van Buren, while the Whigs fielded multiple presidential candidates.
He wrote in his private journal in 1820: In 1836, partially in response to Adams's consistent presentation of citizen petitions requesting the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, the House of Representatives imposed a "gag rule" that immediately tabled any petitions about slavery.
In late 1836, Adams began a campaign to ridicule slave owners and the gag rule.
Congress also debated whether the federal government had the authority to accept the gift, though with Adams leading the initiative, Congress decided to accept the legacy bequeathed to the nation and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1, 1836.
After 1835, Adams never again sought higher office, focusing instead on his service in the House of Representatives. === Van Buren and Tyler administrations, 1837–1843 === In the mid-1830s, the Anti-Masonic Party, the National Republicans, and other groups opposed to Jackson coalesced into the Whig Party.
Adams's strong stance may have played a role in discouraging Van Buren from pushing for the annexation of Texas during his presidency. Whig nominee William Henry Harrison defeated Van Buren in the 1840 presidential election, and the Whigs gained control of both houses of Congress for the first time.
However, Harrison died in April 1841 and was succeeded by Vice President John Tyler, a Southerner who, unlike Adams, Henry Clay, and many other prominent Whigs, did not embrace the American System.
Adams fought actively against the gag rule for another seven years, eventually moving the resolution that led to its repeal in 1844. In 1841, at the request of Lewis Tappan and Ellis Gray Loring, Adams joined the case of United States v.
Adams appeared on February 24, 1841, and spoke for four hours.
Adams County, Iowa, and Adams County, Wisconsin, were each named for either John Adams or John Quincy Adams. Some sources contend that in 1843 Adams sat for the earliest confirmed photograph of a United States president, although others maintain that William Henry Harrison had posed even earlier for his portrait, in 1841.
Adams County, Iowa, and Adams County, Wisconsin, were each named for either John Adams or John Quincy Adams. Some sources contend that in 1843 Adams sat for the earliest confirmed photograph of a United States president, although others maintain that William Henry Harrison had posed even earlier for his portrait, in 1841.
The impeachment process did not move forward, though, in large part because the Whigs did not believe that the Senate would vote to remove Tyler from office. === Opposition to the Mexican-American War, 1844–1848 === Tyler made the annexation of Texas the main foreign policy priority of the later stages of his administration.
He attempted to win ratification of an annexation treaty in 1844, but, to Adams's surprise and relief, the treaty was rejected by the Senate.
The annexation of Texas became the central issue of the 1844 presidential election, and Southerners blocked the nomination of Van Buren at the 1844 Democratic National Convention due to the latter's opposition to annexation; the party instead nominated James K.
Though he once again did not take part in the campaigning, Adams was deeply disappointed that Polk defeated his old ally, Henry Clay, in the 1844 election.
Adams fought actively against the gag rule for another seven years, eventually moving the resolution that led to its repeal in 1844. In 1841, at the request of Lewis Tappan and Ellis Gray Loring, Adams joined the case of United States v.
After the election, Tyler, whose term would end in March 1845, once again submitted an annexation treaty to Congress.
Texas thus joined the United States as a slave state in 1845. Adams had served with James K.
After Taylor's forces clashed with Mexican soldiers north of the Rio Grande, Polk asked for a declaration of war in early 1846, asserting that Mexico had invaded American territory.
After 1846, ill health increasingly affected Adams, but he continued to oppose the Mexican–American War until his death in 1848. === Anti-slavery movement === In the 1830s, slavery emerged as an increasingly polarizing issue in the United States.
Partly due to Adams's efforts, Congress voted to establish the Smithsonian Institution in 1846.
A nonpolitical board of regents was established to lead the institution, which included a museum, art gallery, library, and laboratory. === Death === In mid-November 1846, the 78-year-old former president suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed.
When Adams entered the House chamber on February 13, 1847, everyone "stood up and applauded". On February 21, 1848, the House of Representatives was discussing the matter of honoring United States Army officers who served in the Mexican–American War.
John Quincy Adams (; July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States, from 1825 to 1829.
The Democrats proved to be more effective political organizers than Adams and his National Republican supporters, and Jackson decisively defeated Adams in the 1828 presidential election, the second president (after his father) to fail re-election. Rather than retiring from public service, Adams won election to the House of Representatives, where he would serve from 1831 to his death in 1848.
He soon began to exhibit his literary skills, and in 1779 he initiated a diary which he kept until just before he died in 1848.
Nonetheless, he would win election to nine terms, serving from 1831 until his death in 1848.
After 1846, ill health increasingly affected Adams, but he continued to oppose the Mexican–American War until his death in 1848. === Anti-slavery movement === In the 1830s, slavery emerged as an increasingly polarizing issue in the United States.
When Adams entered the House chamber on February 13, 1847, everyone "stood up and applauded". On February 21, 1848, the House of Representatives was discussing the matter of honoring United States Army officers who served in the Mexican–American War.
Charles served as the Free Soil Party's vice presidential candidate in the 1848 presidential election and later became a prominent member of the Republican Party. === Personality === Adams's personality and political beliefs were much like his father's.
After Louisa's death in 1852, his son had his parents reinterred in the expanded family crypt in the United First Parish Church across the street, next to John and Abigail.
In 1870, Charles Francis built the first presidential library in the United States, to honor his father.
No future presidential candidate would match Jackson's proportion of the popular vote until Theodore Roosevelt's 1904 campaign, while Adams's loss made him the second one-term president, after his own father.
John Quincy Adams: Policymaker for the Union (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001). excerpt and text search == Further reading == === Secondary sources === Pessen, Edward.
After the nephew died without heirs in 1835, President Andrew Jackson informed Congress of the bequest, which amounted to about US$500,000 (US$75 million in 2008 dollars after inflation).
The Diaries of John Quincy Adams, 1779–1821 (Library of America, 20170.
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