Despite its fall, the Mita made it to the 1800s. Another important group of slaves to mention were the slaves brought over from Africa.
Since the Philippines was far from Spain, the governance of the islands was relagated to the Viceroyalty of New Spain. ===Independence (1804–1825)=== In 1804, Haiti became the first Latin American nation to gain independence, following a violent slave revolt led by Toussaint L'ouverture on the French colony of Saint-Domingue.
In 1806 a small British force surprise attacked the capitol of the viceroyalty in Río de la Plata. As a result, the local garrison protecting the capitol was destroyed in an attempt to defend against the British conquest.
Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 marked a turning point, compelling Criollo elites to form juntas that advocated independence.
Eventually, these early movements were crushed by the royalist troops by 1810, including those of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in Mexico in the year 1810.
However, the cortes of Spain later abolished it in 1812 once complaints of the Mita violating humanitarian rights were made.
Later on Francisco de Miranda in Venezuela by 1812.
Following the conservative idea that the old government was better, urbanites tended to support conservatism because more opportunities were available to them as a result of the Portuguese presence. Simón Bolívar became president of Gran Colombia in 1819 after the region gained independence from Spain.
From the early 1820s to 1850, the post-independence economies of Latin American countries were lagging and stagnant.
Between 1820 and 2008, this gap widened from 0.8 to 2.7 times.
By 1870, exports dramatically increased, attracting capital from abroad (including Europe and USA). ===French involvement in Latin America during the 19th century=== Between 1821 and 1910, Mexico battled through various civil wars between the established Conservative government and the Liberal reformists ("Mexico Timeline- Page 2)".
This First Mexican Empire was short-lived, and was followed by the creation of a republic in 1823. ====Independent Empire of Brazil==== The Brazilian War of Independence, which had already begun along other independent movements around the region, spread through northern, northeastern regions and in Cisplatina province.
Eventually France began plans to build the Panama Canal in 1881 until 1904 when the United States took over and proceeded with its construction and implementation ("Read Our Story"). ===American involvement in Latin America=== ====Monroe Doctrine==== The Monroe Doctrine was included in President James Monroe's 1823 annual message to Congress.
Liberalists wanted to see a change in the ruling systems, and to move away from monarchs and social classes to promote equality. When liberal Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico in 1824, conservatists relied on their belief that the state had been better off before the new government came into power, so, by comparison, the old government was better in the eyes of the Conservatives.
Under the leadership of a new generation of leaders, such as Simón Bolívar "The Liberator", José de San Martín of Argentina, and other Libertadores in South America, the independence movement regained strength, and by 1825, all Spanish America, except for Puerto Rico and Cuba, had gained independence from Spain.
On May 8, 1827 Baron Damas, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Sebastián Camacho, a Mexican diplomat, signed an agreement called "The Declarations" which contained provisions regarding commerce and navigation between France and Mexico.
Between 1832 and 1852, the country existed as a confederation, without a head of state, although the federalist governor of Buenos Aires province, Juan Manuel de Rosas, was given the powers of debt payment and international relations and exerted a growing hegemony over the country.
General Santa Anna was elected president in 1833.
This loss led to a rebellion by the enraged liberal forces against the conservative government. In 1837, conservative Rafael Carrera conquered Guatemala and separated from the Central American Union.
This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841. During the last phase of the monarchy, an internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery.
This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841. During the last phase of the monarchy, an internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery.
The main cause of the war was the United States' annexation of Texas in 1845 and a dispute afterwards about whether the border between Mexico and the United States ended where Mexico claimed, at the Nueces River, or ended where the United States claimed, at the Rio Grande.
involvement in Latin America, was a war between the United States and Mexico that started in April 1846 and lasted until February 1848.
involvement in Latin America, was a war between the United States and Mexico that started in April 1846 and lasted until February 1848.
From the early 1820s to 1850, the post-independence economies of Latin American countries were lagging and stagnant.
Between 1832 and 1852, the country existed as a confederation, without a head of state, although the federalist governor of Buenos Aires province, Juan Manuel de Rosas, was given the powers of debt payment and international relations and exerted a growing hegemony over the country.
A national constitution was only enacted in 1853, reformed in 1860, and the country reorganized as a federal republic led by a liberal-conservative elite.
In 1855, he traveled to Nicaragua hoping to overthrow the government and take the land for the United States.
The largest country in Latin America by both area and population is Brazil. The term "Latin America" was first used in an 1856 conference with the title "Initiative of America.
As Michel Gobat reminds in his article "The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race", "Arturo Ardao, Miguel Rojas Mix, and Aims McGuinness have revealed [that] the term 'Latin America' had already been used in 1856 by Central Americans and South Americans protesting U.S.
On May 1, 1857, Walker was forced by a coalition of Central American armies to surrender himself to a United States Navy officer who repatriated him and his followers.
Others argue that the term arose in 1860s France during the reign of Napoleon III, as part of the attempt to create a French empire in the Americas.
This led to Napoleon's failed attempt to take military control of Mexico in the 1860s. However, though Phelan thesis is still frequently mentioned in the U.S.
After 1860 Brazil alone had imported over 4 million slaves, which only represented about 35% of the Atlantic slave trade.
A national constitution was only enacted in 1853, reformed in 1860, and the country reorganized as a federal republic led by a liberal-conservative elite.
When Walker subsequently returned to Central America in 1860, he was apprehended by the Honduran authorities and executed. ====Mexican–American War (1846–48)==== The Mexican–American War, another instance of U.S.
This term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement. === Contemporary definitions === Latin America is often used synonymously with Ibero-America ("Iberian America"), excluding the predominantly Dutch-, French- and English-speaking territories.
It was not until 1861 that the liberalist rebels, led by Benito Juárez, took control of Mexico City, consolidating liberal rule.
On December 8, 1861, Spain, England and France landed in Veracruz to seize unpaid debts from Mexico.
However, Napoleon III, with intentions of establishing a French client state to further push his economic interests, pressured the other two powers to withdraw in 1862 (Greenspan; "French Intervention in Mexico…"). France under Napoleon III remained and established Maximilian of Habsburg, Archduke of Austria, as Emperor of Mexico.
The Battle of Puebla in 1862 in particular presented an important turning point in which Ignacio Zaragoza led the Mexican army to victory as they pushed back the French offensive ("Timeline of the Mexican Revolution").
The doctrine was put into effect in 1865 when the U.S.
These countries came to be called banana republics. Cubans, with the aid of Dominicans, launched a war for independence in 1868 and, over the next 30 years, suffered 279,000 losses in a brutal war against Spain that culminated in U.S.
By 1870, exports dramatically increased, attracting capital from abroad (including Europe and USA). ===French involvement in Latin America during the 19th century=== Between 1821 and 1910, Mexico battled through various civil wars between the established Conservative government and the Liberal reformists ("Mexico Timeline- Page 2)".
Eventually France began plans to build the Panama Canal in 1881 until 1904 when the United States took over and proceeded with its construction and implementation ("Read Our Story"). ===American involvement in Latin America=== ====Monroe Doctrine==== The Monroe Doctrine was included in President James Monroe's 1823 annual message to Congress.
The 1898 Spanish–American War resulted in the end of Spanish colonial presence in the Americas.
intervention in Latin America followed, with the acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone in 1903, the so-called Banana Wars in Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and Honduras; the Caco Wars in Haiti; and the so-called Border War with Mexico.
Eventually France began plans to build the Panama Canal in 1881 until 1904 when the United States took over and proceeded with its construction and implementation ("Read Our Story"). ===American involvement in Latin America=== ====Monroe Doctrine==== The Monroe Doctrine was included in President James Monroe's 1823 annual message to Congress.
By 1870, exports dramatically increased, attracting capital from abroad (including Europe and USA). ===French involvement in Latin America during the 19th century=== Between 1821 and 1910, Mexico battled through various civil wars between the established Conservative government and the Liberal reformists ("Mexico Timeline- Page 2)".
Within two years, the Cold War was over and Cuba's foreign policy shifted away from military intervention. ====Nicaraguan Revolution==== Following the American occupation of Nicaragua in 1912, as part of the Banana Wars, the Somoza family political dynasty came to power, and would rule Nicaragua until their ouster in 1979 during the Nicaraguan Revolution.
Some 3,000 Latin Americans were killed between 1914 and 1933.
Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy in 1933. ===World wars (1914–1945)=== ====World War I and the Zimmermann Telegram==== The Zimmermann Telegram was a 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire for Mexico to join an alliance with Germany in the prior event of the United States entering World War I against Germany.
The news helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April of that year. The message came as a coded telegram dispatched by the Foreign Secretary of the German Empire, Arthur Zimmermann, on January 16, 1917.
In 1919, the French Military Mission was established by the French Commission in Brazil.
Some 3,000 Latin Americans were killed between 1914 and 1933.
Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy in 1933. ===World wars (1914–1945)=== ====World War I and the Zimmermann Telegram==== The Zimmermann Telegram was a 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire for Mexico to join an alliance with Germany in the prior event of the United States entering World War I against Germany.
In 1940, Laredo Brú infamously denied entry to 900 Jewish refugees who arrived in Havana aboard the MS St.
Batista became president in his own right following the election of 1940.
The Potrero del Llano, originally an Italian tanker, had been seized in port by the Mexican government in April 1941 and renamed in honor of a region in Veracruz.
Cuba declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941, and on Germany and Italy on December 11. Cuba was an important participant in the Battle of the Caribbean and its navy gained a reputation for skill and efficiency.
On January 22, 1942, Brazil officially ended all relations with Germany, Japan, and Italy, becoming a part of the Allies. The Brazilian Expeditionary Force was sent to Naples, Italy to fight for democracy.
It was attacked and crippled by the on May 13, 1942.
On May 20, 1942, a second tanker, Faja de Oro, also a seized Italian ship, was attacked and sunk by the , killing 10 of 37 crewmen.
In response, President Manuel Ávila Camacho and the Mexican government declared war on the Axis powers on May 22, 1942. A large part of Mexico's contribution to the war came through an agreement January 1942 that allowed Mexican nationals living in the United States to join the American armed forces.
It did not directly contribute with troops, aircraft, or ships, however 112 Dominicans were integrated into the US military and fought in the war. On May 3, 1942, sank Dominican ship San Rafael with 1 torpedo and 32 rounds from the deck gun 50 miles west off Jamaica; 1 was killed, 37 survived.
On May 21, 1942, sank Dominican ship Presidente Trujillo off Fort-de-France, Martinique; 24 were killed, 15 survived.
On May 15, 1943, a squadron of Cuban submarine chasers sank the near Cayo Blanquizal.
Between 1946 and 1959 Latin America received only 2% of the United States foreign aid despite having poor conditions similar to the main recipients of The Marshall Plan.
In 1947, the US Congress passed the National Security Act, which created the National Security Council in response to the United States's growing obsession with anti-communism.
In 1954, when Jacobo Arbenz of Guatemala accepted the support of communists and attacked holdings of the United Fruit Company, the US decided to assist Guatemalan counter-revolutionaries in overthrowing Arbenz.
Despite civil war, high crime and political instability, most Latin American countries eventually adopted bourgeois liberal democracies while Cuba maintained its socialist system. ====Bay of Pigs Invasion==== Encouraged by the success of Guatemala in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, in 1960, the U.S.
Between 1946 and 1959 Latin America received only 2% of the United States foreign aid despite having poor conditions similar to the main recipients of The Marshall Plan.
American officials had long recognized that the Dominican Republic's conduct under Trujillo was "below the level of recognized civilian nations, certainly not much above that of the communists." But after Castro's seizure of power in 1959, President Dwight D.
Following this warning, and the arrival of a fourteen-vessel US naval task force within sight of Santo Domingo, Ramfis and his uncles fled the country on November 19 with $200 million from the Dominican treasury. ====Cuban Revolution==== By 1959, Cuba was afflicted with a corrupt dictatorship under Batista, and Fidel Castro ousted Batista that year and set up the first communist state in the hemisphere.
Instead, the reform failed because of the simplistic theory that guided it and the lack of experienced American experts who could understand Latin American customs. ====Foreign interventions by Cuba==== Armed Cuban intervention overseas began on June 14, 1959 with an invasion of the Dominican Republic by a group of fifty-six men, who landed a C-56 transport aircraft at the military airport of the town of Constanza.
Starting in the 1960s with the Latin American Free Trade Association and Central American Common Market, Latin American countries worked toward economic integration. In efforts to help regain global economic strength, the U.S.
In 1960, Trujillo threatened to align with the Communist world in response to US and Latin American rejection of his regime.
Despite civil war, high crime and political instability, most Latin American countries eventually adopted bourgeois liberal democracies while Cuba maintained its socialist system. ====Bay of Pigs Invasion==== Encouraged by the success of Guatemala in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, in 1960, the U.S.
In 1961, Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the CIA.
On November 18, 1961, as a planned coup became more evident, US Secretary of State Dean Rusk issued a warning that the United States would not "remain idle" if the Trujillos attempted to "reassert dictatorial domination" over the Dominican Republic.
The Bay of Pigs invasion was an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba in 1961, financed by the U.S.
Kennedy initiated the Alliance for Progress in 1961, to establish economic cooperation between the U.S.
The incident proved to be very embarrassing for the new Kennedy administration. The failure of the invasion led to a Soviet-Cuban alliance. ====Cuban Missile Crisis==== In 1962, Cuba threatened the USA when it allowed Soviet missiles to be placed on the island, just 90 miles away from Florida; Cuba saw it as a way to defend the island, while the Americans saw it as a threat.
People with European ancestry are the largest single group, and along with people of part-European ancestry, they combine to make up approximately 80% of the population, or even more. According to Jon Aske: Aske has also written that: In his famous 1963 book The Rise of the West, William Hardy McNeill wrote that: Thomas C.
Increasing inflation and other factors caused countries to be unwilling to fund social development programs to help the poor. ====Bureaucratic authoritarianism==== Bureaucratic authoritarianism was practised in Brazil after 1964, in Argentina, and in Chile under Augusto Pinochet, in a response to harsh economic conditions.
A Marxist, Salvador Allende, became president of Chile in 1970, but was overthrown three years later in a military coup backed by the United States.
In November 1975, Cuba poured more than 65,000 troops into Angola in one of the fastest military mobilizations in history.
On November 10, 1975, Cuban forces defeated the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) in the Battle of Quifangondo.
On November 25, 1975, as the South African Defence Force (SADF) tried to cross a bridge, Cubans hidden along the banks of the river attacked, destroying seven armored cars and killing upwards of 90 enemy soldiers.
On March 27, 1976, the last South African troops withdrew from Angola.
In September 1977, 12 MiG-21s conducted strafing flights over Puerto Plata in Dominican Republic to warn then president Joaquín Balaguer against intercepting Cuban warships headed to or returning from Angola.
Although the initial overthrow of the Somoza regime in 1978–79 was a bloody affair, the Contra War of the 1980s took the lives of tens of thousands of Nicaraguans and was the subject of fierce international debate.
Within two years, the Cold War was over and Cuba's foreign policy shifted away from military intervention. ====Nicaraguan Revolution==== Following the American occupation of Nicaragua in 1912, as part of the Banana Wars, the Somoza family political dynasty came to power, and would rule Nicaragua until their ouster in 1979 during the Nicaraguan Revolution.
Ardao wrote about this subject in his book Génesis de la idea y el nombre de América latina (Genesis of the Idea and the Name of Latin America, 1980), and Miguel Rojas Mix in his article "Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria" (Bilbao and the Finding of Latin America: a Continental, Socialist and Libertarian Union, 1986).
Although the initial overthrow of the Somoza regime in 1978–79 was a bloody affair, the Contra War of the 1980s took the lives of tens of thousands of Nicaraguans and was the subject of fierce international debate.
From the early 1980s through the mid-1990s, homicide rates increased by 50 percent.
Since 1980, Latin America also lost growth versus the world average.
Many nations such as those in Asia have joined others on a rapid economic growth path, but Latin America has grown at slower pace and its share of world output declined from 9.5% in 1980 to 7.8% in 2008. ==== Standard of living ==== Latin America is the region with the highest levels of income inequality in the world.
The comprehensive Free Trade Area of the Americas project, however, was rejected by most South American countries at the 2005 4th Summit of the Americas. ===Return of social movements=== In 1982, Mexico announced that it could not meet its foreign debt payment obligations, inaugurating a debt crisis that would "discredit" Latin American economies throughout the decade.
Ardao wrote about this subject in his book Génesis de la idea y el nombre de América latina (Genesis of the Idea and the Name of Latin America, 1980), and Miguel Rojas Mix in his article "Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria" (Bilbao and the Finding of Latin America: a Continental, Socialist and Libertarian Union, 1986).
The crisis began in 1987 with an assault by Soviet-equipped national army troops against the pro-Western rebel movement UNITA in southeastern Angola.
In 1988, Cuba returned to Angola with a vengeance.
In June 1988, SADF armor and artillery engaged FAPLA-Cuban forces at Techipa, killing 290 Angolans and 10 Cubans.
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale stalemated, and a peace treaty was signed in September 1988.
Most educational systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early 1990s.
Other significant types of social movements include labor struggles and strikes, such as recovered factories in Argentina, as well as gender-based movements such as the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina and protests against maquila production, which is largely a women's issue because of how it draws on women for cheap labor. ===Turn to the left=== In most countries, since the 2000s left-wing political parties have risen to power.
In Chile, the conservative Sebastián Piñera succeeded the socialist Michelle Bachelet in 2017. The 2000s commodities boom caused positive effects for many Latin American economies.
Latin America and the Caribbean experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017.
An estimated 700,000 Bolivians were living in Argentina as of 2006 and another 33,000 in the United States. Japanese Brazilian immigrants to Japan numbered 250,000 in 2004, constituting Japan's second-largest immigrant population.
The comprehensive Free Trade Area of the Americas project, however, was rejected by most South American countries at the 2005 4th Summit of the Americas. ===Return of social movements=== In 1982, Mexico announced that it could not meet its foreign debt payment obligations, inaugurating a debt crisis that would "discredit" Latin American economies throughout the decade.
31.7 million Americans listed their ancestry as Mexican as of 2010, or roughly 10% of the population. According to the 2005 Colombian census or DANE, about 3,331,107 Colombians currently live abroad. The number of Brazilians living overseas is estimated at about 2 million people.
An estimated 700,000 Bolivians were living in Argentina as of 2006 and another 33,000 in the United States. Japanese Brazilian immigrants to Japan numbered 250,000 in 2004, constituting Japan's second-largest immigrant population.
Between 1820 and 2008, this gap widened from 0.8 to 2.7 times.
Many nations such as those in Asia have joined others on a rapid economic growth path, but Latin America has grown at slower pace and its share of world output declined from 9.5% in 1980 to 7.8% in 2008. ==== Standard of living ==== Latin America is the region with the highest levels of income inequality in the world.
Another trend is the rapidly increasing importance of the relations with China. With the end of the commodity boom in the 2010s, economic stagnation or recession resulted in some countries.
31.7 million Americans listed their ancestry as Mexican as of 2010, or roughly 10% of the population. According to the 2005 Colombian census or DANE, about 3,331,107 Colombians currently live abroad. The number of Brazilians living overseas is estimated at about 2 million people.
In 2012 Latin America constitute in absolute terms the second world's largest Christian population, after Europe. According to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of the Latin American population is Catholic and 19% is Protestant.
By June 2014, Honduras (Juan Orlando Hernández), Guatemala (Otto Pérez Molina), and Panama (Ricardo Martinelli) had right-wing governments. ===Conservative wave and modern era=== Following the pink tide, the conservative wave swept across the continent.
In 2012 Latin America constitute in absolute terms the second world's largest Christian population, after Europe. According to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of the Latin American population is Catholic and 19% is Protestant.
Countries with the highest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants as of 2015 were: El Salvador 109, Honduras 64, Venezuela 57, Jamaica 43, Belize 34.4, St.
In Chile, the conservative Sebastián Piñera succeeded the socialist Michelle Bachelet in 2017. The 2000s commodities boom caused positive effects for many Latin American economies.
As of July 2017, the highest ranking politicians charged were former Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (arrested) and former Peruvian presidents Ollanta Humala (arrested) and Alejandro Toledo (fugitive, fled to the US). The COVID-19 pandemic proved a political challenge for many unstable Latin American democracies, with scholars identifying a decline in civil liberties as a result of opportunistic emergency powers.
Latin America and the Caribbean experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017.
There were a total of 63,880 murders in Brazil in 2018. The major victims of such homicides are young men, 69 percent of whom are between the ages of 15 and 19 years old.
It was also the 3rd largest world producer of milk in 2018.
In 2019, Brazil was the 4th largest pork producer in the world, with almost 4 million tons. In 2018, Argentina was the 4th largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tons (behind only USA, Brazil and China).
In 2018, it produced 589 thousand tons of beef. In the production of chicken meat, Mexico is among the 10 largest producers in the world, Argentina among the 15 largest and Peru and Colombia among the 20 largest.
As of March 2, 2020, population of Latin America and the Caribbean was estimated at more than 652 million, and in 2019, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of US$5,188,250 million and a GDP PPP of 10,284,588 million USD. ==Etymology and definitions== ===Origins=== There is no universal agreement on the origin of the term Latin America.
The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15.4% of global production.
In 2019, Brazil was the 4th largest pork producer in the world, with almost 4 million tons. In 2018, Argentina was the 4th largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tons (behind only USA, Brazil and China).
As of March 2, 2020, population of Latin America and the Caribbean was estimated at more than 652 million, and in 2019, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of US$5,188,250 million and a GDP PPP of 10,284,588 million USD. ==Etymology and definitions== ===Origins=== There is no universal agreement on the origin of the term Latin America.
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