In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings. ==== French ==== The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787-1810).
Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance.
The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society (LMS).
In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings. ==== French ==== The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually.
The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835, but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death. By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa.
In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population.
William Ellis (missionary) described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856.
William Ellis (missionary) described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856.
William Ellis (missionary) described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856.
Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually.
Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity, declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace.
In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions. ===French colonization=== Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War.
In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar.
To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases.
To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases.
Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.
France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria.
Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today.
In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration.
The monarchy ended in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960.
A two-year resistance movement organized in response to the French capture of the royal palace was effectively put down at the end of 1897. Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.
Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897. The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.
The literacy rate is estimated at 64.7%. ==Demographics== In , the population of Madagascar was estimated at million, up from 2.2 million in 1900.
Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the Asian common toad, a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna." Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction.
In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.
During the Second World War, the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force. The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947.
Madagascar had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.63/10, ranking it 119th globally out of 172 countries. According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent.
This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.
The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community.
The number of Europeans has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958 to 17,000 three decades later.
In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic.
A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960. ===Independent state=== Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution.
The monarchy ended in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960.
A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960. ===Independent state=== Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution.
The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960.
The next largest cities are Antsirabe (500,000), Toamasina (450,000) and Mahajanga (400,000). ===Politics=== Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination.
Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897. The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.
Only 15% of the nation's 24,894,551 population live in the 10 largest cities. === United Nations involvement === Madagascar became a Member State of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its independence on 26 June 1960.
The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence. Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union.
Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972. Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975.
These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979.
Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972. Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975.
General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the Socialist-Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity.
Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure. Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.
Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence.
Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.
Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.
These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979.
The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy. Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally.
Over 50 percent of the nation's export revenue was spent on debt servicing. The IMF forced Madagascar's government to accept structural adjustment policies and liberalization of the economy when the state became bankrupt in 1982 and state-controlled industries were gradually privatized over the course of the 1980s.
Over 50 percent of the nation's export revenue was spent on debt servicing. The IMF forced Madagascar's government to accept structural adjustment policies and liberalization of the economy when the state became bankrupt in 1982 and state-controlled industries were gradually privatized over the course of the 1980s.
Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and it currently provides half of the world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s. Madagascar has one of the world's largest reserves of ilmenite (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel.
The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990.
In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup.
The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy. Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally.
Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.
The political crisis of 1991 led to the suspension of IMF and World Bank assistance.
Since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo.
Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993-96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992-2010).
Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure. Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.
Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication. No official languages were mentioned in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language.
General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the Socialist-Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity.
Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence.
Department of State in 2011, 41% of Madagascans practiced Christianity, and 52% adhered to traditional religions, which tends to emphasize links between the living and the razana (ancestors); these numbers were drawn from the 1993 census.
He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election.
Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka.
Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure. Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.
These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges. As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006.
, there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur, 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.
Madagascar had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.63/10, ranking it 119th globally out of 172 countries. According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent.
Although banned by then-President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting. Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations.
To raise public awareness of Madagascar's environmental challenges, the Wildlife Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled "Madagascar!" in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York. ==History== ===Early period=== Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.
Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional.
Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka.
The eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson.
Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus.
The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of the Interior and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate.
Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure. Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.
Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka.
Ravalomana was president from 2002 to 2009.
The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence. Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union.
By contrast, a previous study in 2008 had found only 38 percent of lemur species were at risk of extinction. In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected natural areas to over or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface.
Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus.
Business Council was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between USAID and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.
In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar.
Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau.
The IMF agreed to write off half Madagascar's debt in 2004 under the Ravalomanana administration.
Having met a set of stringent economic, governance and human rights criteria, Madagascar became the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account in 2005. Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82.
These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges. As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006.
In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana.
The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language. In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English.
, there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur, 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.
By contrast, a previous study in 2008 had found only 38 percent of lemur species were at risk of extinction. In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected natural areas to over or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface.
To raise public awareness of Madagascar's environmental challenges, the Wildlife Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled "Madagascar!" in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York. ==History== ===Early period=== Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.
An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.
The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the company's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038.
Fifteen percent of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector.
In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup.
However, in a popular uprising in 2009, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign and presidential power was transferred in March 2009 to Andry Rajoelina.
, the economy has been weakened by the 2009–2013 political crisis, and quality of life remains low for the majority of the Malagasy population. ==Etymology== In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara () and its people are referred to as Malagasy.
Although banned by then-President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting. Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations.
A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group.
In the later half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption. Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état.
In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections.
He was previously president from 2009 to 2014.
Ravalomana was president from 2002 to 2009.
A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed.
Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina.
This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power. The Minister of the Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (gendarmerie) and the secret police.
However, in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps.
Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force, producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years. ===Administrative divisions=== Madagascar is subdivided into 22 regions (faritra).
These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining from heavy mineral sands near Tôlanaro by Rio Tinto, extraction of nickel near Moramanga and its processing near Toamasina by Sherritt International, and the development of the giant onshore [crude oil|heavy oil] deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil. Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009.
Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 because of the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism.
The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990.
In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup.
Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women. Madagascar had outbreaks of the bubonic plague and pneumonic plague in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).
The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.9 percent in 2009. Approximately 42.5 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 54.5 percent are between the ages of 15 and 64.
In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.
An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.
The main sources of Madagascar's imports include China, France, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong. ===Infrastructure and media=== In 2010, Madagascar had approximately of paved roads, of railways and of navigable waterways.
In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57 dentists for a population of 22 million.
In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup.
English was removed as an official language from the constitution approved by voters in the November 2010 referendum.
During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector.
The agriculture sector constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP.
The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year; almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017, one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1% with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017.
Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade, with an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the nation's many internet cafés in December 2011. ==Health== Medical centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo.
Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8 percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a contributing factor to rapid population growth.
The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births, with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births.
Department of State in 2011, 41% of Madagascans practiced Christianity, and 52% adhered to traditional religions, which tends to emphasize links between the living and the razana (ancestors); these numbers were drawn from the 1993 census.
A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group.
The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year; almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017, one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1% with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017.
Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair and transparent by the international community.
Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international community deemed fair and transparent. In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December.
The last National Assembly election was held on 20 December 2013 and the last Senate election was held on 30 December 2015. At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council.
Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair and transparent by the international community.
Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the Asian common toad, a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna." Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction.
He was previously president from 2009 to 2014.
Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women. Madagascar had outbreaks of the bubonic plague and pneumonic plague in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).
Public expenditure on education was 2.8 percent of GDP in 2014.
The last National Assembly election was held on 20 December 2013 and the last Senate election was held on 30 December 2015. At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council.
Starting in 2015, under the direction of and with assistance from the UN, the World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with the two main goals of long-term development and reconstruction efforts, and addressing the food insecurity issues in the southern regions of Madagascar.
Having met a set of stringent economic, governance and human rights criteria, Madagascar became the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account in 2005. Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82.
During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector.
The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year; almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017, one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1% with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017.
In 2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants.
As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar are deployed in Haiti as part of the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti.
In 2017, Madagascar signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. == Economy == During the era of Madagascar's First Republic, France heavily influenced Madagascar's economic planning and policy and served as its key trading partner.
The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year; almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017, one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1% with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017.
In 2017 the top exports were vanilla (US$894M), nickel metal (US$414M), cloves (US$288M), knitted sweaters (US$184M) and cobalt (US$143M). Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of vanilla, cloves and ylang-ylang.
Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women. Madagascar had outbreaks of the bubonic plague and pneumonic plague in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).
Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international community deemed fair and transparent. In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December.
Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018. ==Education== Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders.
Madagascar had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.63/10, ranking it 119th globally out of 172 countries. According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent.
In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president. In June 2019 parliamentary elections the party of president Andry Rajoelina won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly.
In 2019, Madagascar had a measles outbreak, resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths.
In 2020, Madagascar was also affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.
All text is taken from Wikipedia. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License .
Page generated on 2021-08-05