The B-2 bears a resemblance to earlier Northrop aircraft; the YB-35 and YB-49 were both flying wing bombers that had been canceled in development in the early 1950s, allegedly for political reasons.
Farnborough, Hants, UK: Royal Aircraft Establishment, September 1957 National Archive Catalogue file, AVIA 6/20895 Eden, Paul.
The F-117 used flat surfaces (faceting technique) for controlling radar returns as during its development (see Lockheed Have Blue) in the early 1970s, technology only allowed for the simulation of radar reflections on simple, flat surfaces; computing advances in the 1980s made it possible to simulate radar returns on more complex curved surfaces.
Although other detection measures existed, such as human observation, infrared scanners, acoustic locators, their relatively short detection range or poorly-developed technology allowed most aircraft to fly undetected, or at least untracked, especially at night. In 1974, DARPA requested information from U.S.
Development of the first such designs started in 1975 with "the Hopeless Diamond", a model Lockheed built to test the concept. Plans were well advanced by the summer of 1975, when DARPA started the Experimental Survivability Testbed (XST) project.
Lockheed received the sole award for the second test round in April 1976 leading to the Have Blue program and eventually the F-117 stealth attack aircraft.
"The stealth technology developed from the program was later incorporated into other operational aircraft designs, including the B-2 stealth bomber". ===ATB program=== By 1976, these programs had progressed to a position in which a long-range strategic stealth bomber appeared viable.
President Carter became aware of these developments during 1977, and it appears to have been one of the major reasons the B-1 was canceled.
Further studies were ordered in early 1978, by which point the Have Blue platform had flown and proven the concepts.
Northrop also had a classified technology demonstration aircraft, the Tacit Blue in development in 1979 at Area 51.
During the 1980 presidential election campaign in 1979, Ronald Reagan repeatedly stated that Carter was weak on defense, and used the B-1 as a prime example.
In response, on 22 August 1980 the Carter administration publicly disclosed that the United States Department of Defense was working to develop stealth aircraft, including a bomber. The Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) program began in 1979.
In 1979, designer Hal Markarian produced a sketch of the aircraft, that bore considerable similarities to the final design.
The winding-down of the Cold War in the latter portion of the 1980s dramatically reduced the need for the aircraft, which was designed with the intention of penetrating Soviet airspace and attacking high-value targets.
During the late 1980s and 1990s, Congress slashed plans to purchase 132 bombers to 21.
During the 1980 presidential election campaign in 1979, Ronald Reagan repeatedly stated that Carter was weak on defense, and used the B-1 as a prime example.
In response, on 22 August 1980 the Carter administration publicly disclosed that the United States Department of Defense was working to develop stealth aircraft, including a bomber. The Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) program began in 1979.
MIT engineers and scientists helped assess the mission effectiveness of the aircraft under a five-year classified contract during the 1980s. ===Secrecy and espionage=== During its design and development, the Northrop B-2 program was a "black" project requiring a secret clearance for all program personnel before its revelation to the public.
In 2012, Air Force Chief of Staff General Norton Schwartz stated the B-2's 1980s-era stealth technologies would make it less survivable in future contested airspaces, so the USAF is to proceed with the Next-Generation Bomber despite overall budget cuts.
The F-117 used flat surfaces (faceting technique) for controlling radar returns as during its development (see Lockheed Have Blue) in the early 1970s, technology only allowed for the simulation of radar reflections on simple, flat surfaces; computing advances in the 1980s made it possible to simulate radar returns on more complex curved surfaces.
The Air Force originally planned to procure 165 of the ATB bomber. The Northrop team's ATB design was selected over the Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981.
Northrop (now Northrop Grumman) was the B-2's prime contractor; major subcontractors included Boeing, Hughes Aircraft (now Raytheon), GE, and Vought Aircraft. In 1984, a Northrop employee, Thomas Cavanaugh was arrested for attempting to sell classified information to the Soviet Union; the information was taken from Northrop's Pico Rivera, California factory.
Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released on parole in 2001. The B-2 was first publicly displayed on 22 November 1988 at United States Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California, where it was assembled.
An estimated US$23 billion was secretly spent for research and development on the B-2 by 1989.
The B-2's (s/n 82-1066 / AV-1) first public flight was on 17 July 1989 from Palmdale to Edwards AFB. In October 2005, Noshir Gowadia, a design engineer who worked on the B-2's propulsion system, was arrested for selling B-2 related classified information to China.
Dellums and Kasich, in particular, worked together from 1989 through the early 1990s to limit production to 21 aircraft, and were ultimately successful. The escalating cost of the B-2 program and evidence of flaws in the aircraft's ability to elude detection by radar were among factors that drove opposition to continue the program.
At the peak production period specified in 1989, the schedule called for spending US$7 billion to $8 billion per year in 1989 dollars, something Committee Chair Les Aspin (D-WI) said "won't fly financially".
In 1990, the Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the flight control system; it was also found that redesign work was required to reduce the risk of damage to engine fan blades by bird ingestion. In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, including later Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, who cast votes against the B-2 in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a U.S.
Air Force site B-2 Spirit page on Northrop Grumman site B-2 Stealth Bomber article on How It Works Daily B-2 Spirit page at GlobalSecurity.org B-2 Spirit News Articles B-02 Spirit B-02 Spirit 1980s United States bomber aircraft Flying wings Stealth aircraft Quadjets Relaxed-stability aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1989 High-altitude and long endurance aircraft Strategic bombers
During the late 1980s and 1990s, Congress slashed plans to purchase 132 bombers to 21.
By the early 1990s, the Soviet Union dissolved, effectively eliminating the Spirit's primary Cold War mission.
The B-2 may cost up to $135,000 per flight hour to operate in 2010, which is about twice that of the B-52 and B-1. ===Opposition=== In its consideration of the fiscal year 1990 defense budget, the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800 million from the B-2 research and development budget, while at the same time staving off a motion to end the project.
Dellums and Kasich, in particular, worked together from 1989 through the early 1990s to limit production to 21 aircraft, and were ultimately successful. The escalating cost of the B-2 program and evidence of flaws in the aircraft's ability to elude detection by radar were among factors that drove opposition to continue the program.
In 1990, the Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the flight control system; it was also found that redesign work was required to reduce the risk of damage to engine fan blades by bird ingestion. In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, including later Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, who cast votes against the B-2 in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a U.S.
In 1990, the Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the flight control system; it was also found that redesign work was required to reduce the risk of damage to engine fan blades by bird ingestion. In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, including later Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, who cast votes against the B-2 in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a U.S.
The use of JDAMs and precision-guided munitions effectively replaced the controversial tactic of carpet-bombing, which had been harshly criticized due to it causing indiscriminate civilian casualties in prior conflicts, such as the 1991 Gulf War.
New York: Smithmark Publishers Inc., 1991.
New York: Smithmark, 1991.
Under budgetary pressures and Congressional opposition, in his 1992 State of the Union Address, President George H.
In 1990, the Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the flight control system; it was also found that redesign work was required to reduce the risk of damage to engine fan blades by bird ingestion. In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, including later Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, who cast votes against the B-2 in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a U.S.
By 1992, Republican President George H.
Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 1992.
B2SS hangars are known to have been deployed to Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia and RAF Fairford. ==Operational history== ===1990s=== The first operational aircraft, christened Spirit of Missouri, was delivered to Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, where the fleet is based, on 17 December 1993.
In 1996, however, the Clinton administration, though originally committed to ending production of the bombers at 20 aircraft, authorized the conversion of a 21st bomber, a prototype test model, to Block 30 fully operational status at a cost of nearly $500 million. In 1995, Northrop made a proposal to the USAF to build 20 additional aircraft with a flyaway cost of $566 million each. The program was the subject of public controversy for its cost to American taxpayers.
An August 1995 GAO report disclosed that the B-2 had trouble operating in heavy rain, as this rain could damage the aircraft's stealth coating, causing procurement delays until an adequate protective coating could be found.
In 1996, however, the Clinton administration, though originally committed to ending production of the bombers at 20 aircraft, authorized the conversion of a 21st bomber, a prototype test model, to Block 30 fully operational status at a cost of nearly $500 million. In 1995, Northrop made a proposal to the USAF to build 20 additional aircraft with a flyaway cost of $566 million each. The program was the subject of public controversy for its cost to American taxpayers.
In 1996, the General Accounting Office (GAO) disclosed that the USAF's B-2 bombers "will be, by far, the most costly bombers to operate on a per aircraft basis", costing over three times as much as the B-1B (US$9.6 million annually) and over four times as much as the B-52H (US$6.8 million annually).
However a subsequent report in October 1996 noted that the Air Force had made some progress in resolving the issues with the radar via software fixes and hoped to have these fixes undergoing tests by the spring of 1997. The total "military construction" cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars.
The restored test aircraft is on display in the museum's "Cold War Gallery". ==Specifications (B-2A Block 30)== ==Individual aircraft== Sources: B-2 Spirit (Pace), Fas.org ==Notable appearances in media== ==See also== ==References== ===Notes=== ===Bibliography=== "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192." US General Accounting Office, September 1996. Crickmore, Paul and Alison J.
65, September–October 1996, pp. 8–19.
Designed and manufactured by Northrop, later Northrop Grumman, the cost of each aircraft averaged US$737 million (in 1997 dollars).
The total program cost, which included development, engineering and testing, averaged $2.13 billion per aircraft in 1997. Because of its considerable capital and operating costs, the project was controversial in the U.S.
It entered service in 1997 as the second aircraft designed to have advanced stealth technology after the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk attack aircraft.
In September 1997, each hour of B-2 flight necessitated 119 hours of maintenance in turn.
However a subsequent report in October 1996 noted that the Air Force had made some progress in resolving the issues with the radar via software fixes and hoped to have these fixes undergoing tests by the spring of 1997. The total "military construction" cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars.
The cost to procure each B-2 was US$737 million in 1997 dollars, based only on a fleet cost of US$15.48 billion.
The procurement cost per aircraft as detailed in GAO reports, which include spare parts and software support, was $929 million per aircraft in 1997 dollars. The total program cost projected through 2004 was US$44.75 billion in 1997 dollars.
The B-2 reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 1 January 1997.
In 2014, the USAF outlined a series of upgrades including nuclear warfighting, a new integrated processing unit, the ability to carry cruise missiles, and threat warning improvements. In 1998, a Congressional panel advised the Air Force to refocus resources away from continued B-2 production and instead begin development of a new bomber, either a new build or a variant of the B-2.
The need for specialized hangars arose in 1998 when it was found that B-2s passing through Andersen Air Force Base did not have the climate-controlled environment maintenance operations required.
Though designed originally as primarily a nuclear bomber, the B-2 was first used in combat dropping conventional, non-nuclear ordnance in the Kosovo War in 1999.
In its 1999 bomber roadmap the Air Force eschewed the panel's recommendations, believing its current bomber fleet could be maintained until the 2030s.
Originally designed to deliver nuclear weapons, modern usage has shifted towards a flexible role with conventional and nuclear capability. The B-2's combat debut was in 1999, during the Kosovo War.
On 7 May 1999, a B-2 dropped five JDAMs on the Chinese Embassy, killing several staff.
Zenith Imprint, 1999.
Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 1999.
Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released on parole in 2001. The B-2 was first publicly displayed on 22 November 1988 at United States Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California, where it was assembled.
In 2003, the B2SS program was managed by the Combat Support System Program Office at Eglin Air Force Base.
B-2s would be stationed in the Middle East as a part of a US military buildup in the region from 2003. The B-2's combat use preceded a U.S.
Air Force declaration of "full operational capability" in December 2003.
The Pentagon's Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report noted that the B-2's serviceability for Fiscal Year 2003 was still inadequate, mainly due to the maintainability of the B-2's low observable coatings.
North Branch, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2003.
The procurement cost per aircraft as detailed in GAO reports, which include spare parts and software support, was $929 million per aircraft in 1997 dollars. The total program cost projected through 2004 was US$44.75 billion in 1997 dollars.
In the B-2's original configuration, up to 16 GAMs or JDAMs could be deployed; an upgrade program in 2004 raised the maximum carriable capacity to 80 JDAMs. The B-2 has various conventional weapons in its arsenal, able to equip Mark 82 and Mark 84 bombs, CBU-87 Combined Effects Munitions, GATOR mines, and the CBU-97 Sensor Fuzed Weapon.
In early 2004, Northrop Grumman began applying a newly developed AHFM to operational B-2s.
B-2s have made periodic appearances on ground display at various air shows. B-2 test article (s/n AT-1000), the second of two built without engines or instruments for static testing, was placed on display in 2004 at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio.
New York: Amber Books, 2004.
Rochester, Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2004.
The B-2's (s/n 82-1066 / AV-1) first public flight was on 17 July 1989 from Palmdale to Edwards AFB. In October 2005, Noshir Gowadia, a design engineer who worked on the B-2's propulsion system, was arrested for selling B-2 related classified information to China.
Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2005.
In 2008, a B-2 was destroyed in a crash shortly after takeoff, though the crew ejected safely.
In July 2008, the B-2's onboard computing architecture was extensively redesigned; it now incorporates a new integrated processing unit (IPU) that communicates with systems throughout the aircraft via a newly installed fiber optic network; a new version of the operational flight program software was also developed, with legacy code converted from the JOVIAL programming language to standard C.
Updates were also made to the weapon control systems to enable strikes upon moving targets, such as ground vehicles. On 29 December 2008, Air Force officials awarded a US$468 million contract to Northrop Grumman to modernize the B-2 fleet's radars.
In 2008, many of the 136 standalone distributed computers on board the B-2, including the primary flight management computer, were being replaced by a single integrated system.
After the accident, the Air Force took the B-2 fleet off operational status until clearing the fleet for flight status 53 days later on 15 April 2008.
In July 2009, it was reported that the B-2 had successfully passed a major USAF audit.
In July 2009, Northrop Grumman reported the B-2 was compatible with the equipment necessary to deploy the Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP), which is intended to attack reinforced bunkers; up to two MOPs could be equipped in the B-2's bomb bays with one per bay, the B-2 is the only platform compatible with the MOP as of 2012.
The B-2 may cost up to $135,000 per flight hour to operate in 2010, which is about twice that of the B-52 and B-1. ===Opposition=== In its consideration of the fiscal year 1990 defense budget, the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800 million from the B-2 research and development budget, while at the same time staving off a motion to end the project.
In 2010, it was made public that the Air Force Research Laboratory had developed a new material to be used on the part of the wing trailing edge subject to engine exhaust, replacing existing material that quickly degraded. In July 2010, political analyst Rebecca Grant speculated that when the B-2 becomes unable to reliably penetrate enemy defenses, the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II may take on its strike/interdiction mission, carrying B61 nuclear bombs as a tactical bomber.
This was the first crash of a B-2 and the only loss . In February 2010, another serious incident involving a B-2 occurred at Andersen Air Force Base.
The main area of improvement would be replacement of outdated avionics and equipment. It was reported in 2011 that the Pentagon was evaluating an unmanned stealth bomber, characterized as a "mini-B-2", as a potential replacement in the near future.
As of 2011, the AGM-158 JASSM cruise missile is an upcoming standoff munition to be deployed on the B-2 and other platforms.
mainland across the Atlantic Ocean to Libya; a B-2 was refueled by allied tanker aircraft four times during each round trip mission. In August 2011, The New Yorker reported that prior to the May 2011 U.S.
However, in March 2012, the Pentagon announced that a $2 billion, 10-year-long modernization of the B-2 fleet was to begin.
In 2012, Air Force Chief of Staff General Norton Schwartz stated the B-2's 1980s-era stealth technologies would make it less survivable in future contested airspaces, so the USAF is to proceed with the Next-Generation Bomber despite overall budget cuts.
In 2012 projections, it was estimated that the Next-Generation Bomber would have an overall cost of $55 billion. In 2013, the USAF contracted for the Defensive Management System Modernization program to replace the antenna system and other electronics to increase the B-2's frequency awareness.
In July 2009, Northrop Grumman reported the B-2 was compatible with the equipment necessary to deploy the Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP), which is intended to attack reinforced bunkers; up to two MOPs could be equipped in the B-2's bomb bays with one per bay, the B-2 is the only platform compatible with the MOP as of 2012.
In 2012 projections, it was estimated that the Next-Generation Bomber would have an overall cost of $55 billion. In 2013, the USAF contracted for the Defensive Management System Modernization program to replace the antenna system and other electronics to increase the B-2's frequency awareness.
The service believed that development could begin in 2013, in time to replace aging B-2s, B-1s and B-52s around 2037. Although the Air Force previously planned to operate the B-2 to 2058, their FY 2019 budget moved up its retirement to "no later than 2032".
There were also concerns an airstrike would make it difficult to positively identify Bin Laden's remains and so confirming his death would be difficult. On 28 March 2013, two B-2s flew a round trip of from Whiteman Air Force base in Missouri to South Korea, dropping dummy ordnance on the Jik Do target range.
Spirit of Washington was repaired and returned to service in December 2013.
In 2014, the USAF outlined a series of upgrades including nuclear warfighting, a new integrated processing unit, the ability to carry cruise missiles, and threat warning improvements. In 1998, a Congressional panel advised the Air Force to refocus resources away from continued B-2 production and instead begin development of a new bomber, either a new build or a variant of the B-2.
Tensions between North and South Korea were high; after the exercise North Korea protested against the participation of the B-2s and made threats of retaliatory nuclear strikes against South Korea and the United States. On 18 January 2017, two B-2s attacked an ISIS training camp southwest of Sirte, Libya, killing around 85 militants.
As of 2018, twenty B-2s are in service with the United States Air Force, which plans to operate them until 2032, when the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider is to replace it. The B-2 is capable of all-altitude attack missions up to , with a range of more than on internal fuel and over with one midair refueling.
The service believed that development could begin in 2013, in time to replace aging B-2s, B-1s and B-52s around 2037. Although the Air Force previously planned to operate the B-2 to 2058, their FY 2019 budget moved up its retirement to "no later than 2032".
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