From 1836, the Philippines were directly governed by the Ministry of Overseas. Political turmoil in Spain led to 24 governors being appointed to the Philippines from 1800 to 1860, often lacking any experience with the country.
In 1808, when Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain, the liberal constitution of Cadiz was adopted, giving the Philippines representation to the Spanish Cortes.
Prior to 1898, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 had applied to the Philippines for a short time, and there were numerous proposed constitutions during the Philippine Revolution.
From 1836, the Philippines were directly governed by the Ministry of Overseas. Political turmoil in Spain led to 24 governors being appointed to the Philippines from 1800 to 1860, often lacking any experience with the country.
From 1836, the Philippines were directly governed by the Ministry of Overseas. Political turmoil in Spain led to 24 governors being appointed to the Philippines from 1800 to 1860, often lacking any experience with the country.
Significant political reforms began in the 1860s, with a couple of decades seeing the creation of a cabinet under the Governor-General and the division of executive and judicial power.
Education reforms in the 1860s expanded access to higher education.
Better success was had in the south, where the Spanish gained control over the seas and coasts, and obtained the surrender of the Sultanate of Sulu in 1878. The Latin American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity, with the term Filipino shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago.
In the 1880s, some prominent ilustrados, especially those who had studied in Spain, launched the Propaganda Movement.
Such considerations influenced the 1987 constitution; while it maintained the unitary state, it included provisions for autonomous regions and for stronger local government. The Civil Code of the Philippines is based on the Civil Code of Spain, which was extended to the Philippines on July 31, 1889.
In the 1890s divisions emerged among those that supported the ideals of the movement.
One group that emerged from this was the Katipunan, created in 1892 predominantly by members of Manila's urban middle class rather than by ilustrados.
The Spanish created some bodies to bring together barangays in 1893, and the Americans organized provincial governments in 1905.
A small change occurred in 1893, when Spain passed the Maura Law, providing a limited measure of local autonomy. An authoritarian backlash against the Propaganda Movement led to official suppression.
The Katipunan advocated complete Philippine independence, and began the Philippine Revolution in 1896.
After the execution of José Rizal on December 30, 1896, the leader of the Ilustrados who disapproved of the revolution, the rebellion intensified.
A conference was held in 1897 to unite the two factions, but instead caused further division that led to the execution of Andres Bonifacio, who was then the leader of the Katipunan; Bonifacio's death passed the control of the Katipunan to Emilio Aguinaldo.
Since the establishment of the 1898 Constitution, there have been only three new constitutions, implemented in 1935, 1973, and 1987.
Prior to 1898, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 had applied to the Philippines for a short time, and there were numerous proposed constitutions during the Philippine Revolution.
Aguinaldo returned from exile, set up a new government, and proclaimed the independence of the Philippines on June 12, 1898, in Kawit, Cavite.
Aguinaldo proclaimed a revolutionary government, and convened a congress on September 15, 1898, in Barasoain Church in Malolos.
The Philippines remained under Spanish sovereignty until December 10, 1898, when Spain ceded it to the United States in the Treaty of Paris that ended the short war between those powers. === American era === The Philippine–American War erupted in February 1899 in a skirmish in Manila.
It approved the declaration of independence, and in 1899 approved the Malolos Constitution to inaugurate the First Philippine Republic.
The Philippines remained under Spanish sovereignty until December 10, 1898, when Spain ceded it to the United States in the Treaty of Paris that ended the short war between those powers. === American era === The Philippine–American War erupted in February 1899 in a skirmish in Manila.
The Federalist Party, formed in 1900 by landed elites, advocated for autonomy under American rule, although its leaders hoped to become a state of the United States.
Aguinaldo was captured on April 1, 1901, at Palanan, Isabela.
The Americans gave Filipinos limited self-government at the local level by 1901, holding the first municipal elections, and passed the Philippine Organic Act in 1902 to introduce a national government and regularize civilian rule, designating the Philippine Commission as a legislative body, with membership consisting of Americans appointed by the American President.
However, the Anti-Sedition Law of 1901 limited the early development of these political ideas. Americans expanded local participation in governance beyond that which had been allowed under Spanish rule, expanding representative government beyond the merely advisory system that existed under the Spanish.
The Americans gave Filipinos limited self-government at the local level by 1901, holding the first municipal elections, and passed the Philippine Organic Act in 1902 to introduce a national government and regularize civilian rule, designating the Philippine Commission as a legislative body, with membership consisting of Americans appointed by the American President.
The first provincial elections took place in 1902.
hostilities and proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to revolutionaries on July 4, 1902 and abolished the office of U.S.
On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902 with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar. American belief in the importance of the rule of law defined its political approach to the Philippines, with its laws and constitutional traditions replicated in their new possessions and applying to Americans and natives alike.
The Spanish created some bodies to bring together barangays in 1893, and the Americans organized provincial governments in 1905.
The last military resistance outside of Mindanao was ended by 1906.
On July 30, 1907, the first election of the Philippine Assembly was held.
The election of United States President Woodrow Wilson, and his appointment of Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison, led to the policy of Filipinization being introduced in 1913 as part of a policy to accelerate decolonization.
In 1913 Filipinos were included in the commission, shifting its membership to five Filipinos and four Americans.
Military rule over the Muslim Moro Province and the animist Mountain Province ended in 1913, with them then coming under the control of the civilian government in Manila.
Despite this, the traditional political structures of Sultanates and Datus continued as a parallel structure in Mindanao and Sulu throughout the American period, and beyond. The commission was replaced by the Philippine Senate through the 1916 Jones Law.
The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was created in 1920, replacing direct rule by an American Governor, and the Philippine government pursued a policy of gradually strengthening government in Mindanao, supported by immigration from Christian areas.
By 1921, the Filipinization policy had resulted in 96% of the civil service staff being Filipinos. The Nacionalista-dominated Philippine Assembly, and later the Philippine Senate, were often at odds with the Governor-General.
In rural areas, especially central Luzon, class consciousness-based political organization developed, leading to eventually to peasant revolts in the 1930s. ===Commonwealth era=== The new constitution created under this act was approved on January 31, 1935, and was adopted on February 1.
Since the establishment of the 1898 Constitution, there have been only three new constitutions, implemented in 1935, 1973, and 1987.
The presidential system established with the 1935 Constitution was replaced by a semi-parliamentary system in 1973 under the authoritarian rule of President Marcos, concentrating power in his hands.
This Constitution, finished on October 15, 1986 and approved by referendum on February 2, 1987 restored the Presidential system, being based on the 1935 constitution rather than the 1973 one. All Presidents under the current constitution have proposed some type of constitutional reform, although none have succeeded.
The local legislative assemblies may enact local ordinances within their respective territorial and political boundaries in accordance with the local autonomy granted by the Local Government Code. == Elections == Since 1935 and the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, elections have been administered by the Commission on Elections (COMELEC).
While the 1935 constitution designated the President the Commander in Chief, the 1973 constitution was the first to explicitly include the principle of civilian control of the military.
By 1935 these areas were fully integrated into the Philippine administrative structure.
In rural areas, especially central Luzon, class consciousness-based political organization developed, leading to eventually to peasant revolts in the 1930s. ===Commonwealth era=== The new constitution created under this act was approved on January 31, 1935, and was adopted on February 1.
Quezon and Osmeña reconciled, and both were elected as president and vice president respectively, in 1935.
However, while dividing power between three branches similarly to the constitution of the United States, the 1935 constitution gave the Philippine President significantly more power both politically and economically than that accorded to the President of the United States.
This clout allowed him to pass several significant reforms aimed at improving the economic situation of the poor and middle classes, failing only in his attempts at land reform. The transition to the Commonwealth government from American rule led to civil service positions that had previously been held by Americans being filled by political appointees, a practice explicitly allowed by the 1935 constitution.
Some municipal and tax laws from the 1935 Constitution remained in force during this period, and there was continuity in state bureaucracy from the Commonwealth to the Second Republic.
It called for a semi-presidential government was approved in 1973 through shows of hands in citizen assemblies, a process that did not meet the requirements of the 1935 constitution for constitutional change.
The 1987 constitution, approved via plebiscite, restored democracy along the lines of the 1935 constitution, although local elections became synchronized with national elections, term limits were put in place, and a multi-party system replaced the previous two-party system.
In 1937 the voting franchise was expanded to include literate women, and this period saw participation in elections reach 14%.
Quezon, Osmeña and the Nacionalista Party as a whole won the elections in 1941 with greatly increased margins.
After World War Two, the Commonwealth became a founding member of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the International Civil Aviation Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the United Nations. The Japanese invasion of 1941 at the onset of World War II forced the Commonwealth government to go into exile, and subjected the country to a puppet government.
Those attending the congress were the remaining living and free members of the 1941 congress.
109 on December 8, 1942, with other parties being banned.
Laurel was declared president of an independent Second Philippine Republic on October 14, 1943.
Exiled leaders of the previous first Commonwealth government provided limited support to the U.S.; President President Quezon was a member of the Pacific War Council and participated, along with Vice President Osmeña and members of his cabinet, in civic and social activities, promoting the sale of war bonds, etc. The Americans reconquered the country in 1944, and Osmeña, who had succeeded Quezon upon the latter's death, restored the Commonwealth government.
Roxas defeated Osmeña in the 1946 presidential election, and became the last president of the Commonwealth.
The Americans granted independence on July 4, 1946, and Roxas became the first president of the new Republic of the Philippines.
Eventually, many throughout the country who had collaborated with the Japanese were pardoned in 1948 and 1953.
Patronage, fraud, and voter suppression were common methods of maintaining power. Roxas succumbed to a heart attack in 1948, allowing Vice President Elpidio Quirino to rule the country for the next six years, after winning in 1949.
Patronage, fraud, and voter suppression were common methods of maintaining power. Roxas succumbed to a heart attack in 1948, allowing Vice President Elpidio Quirino to rule the country for the next six years, after winning in 1949.
The Philippine civil service in the late 1950s and 60s was becaming more technocratic, and Macapagal established the Program Implementation Agency directly under the President.
Eventually, many throughout the country who had collaborated with the Japanese were pardoned in 1948 and 1953.
Quirino's Liberal government was widely seen as corrupt and was easily beaten by his former Defense secretary Ramon Magsaysay in the 1953 election.
The 1969 election saw a similar election observation effort to 1953, although it did not receive as much backing or have as much impact.
The expression of class-based politics shifted towards more moderate groups, such as the Federation of Free Farmers and the Federation of Free Workers. Before the 1957 election, Magsaysay was killed in a plane crash.
During the Commonwealth period local governments remained under the direct control of the President, before some autonomy was granted to cities and municipalities in 1959 through RA 2264, "An Act Amending the Laws Governing Local Governments by Increasing their Autonomy and Reorganizing Provincial Governments", and to barangays (then called barrios) through RA 2370, the "Barrio Charter Act".
By the late 1960s this had largely brought an end to the land-based cacique democracy patronage system.
Macapagal was defeated in 1965 by Senator Ferdinand Marcos. The growing and diversifying economy of the 1960s led to a growth in private business power and an expansion in mass media.
Garcia was defeated by his vice president, Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal Party, in 1961.
Macapagal was defeated in 1965 by Senator Ferdinand Marcos. The growing and diversifying economy of the 1960s led to a growth in private business power and an expansion in mass media.
Further powers were given under the "Decentralization Act of 1967" (RA 5185), before local elections were abolished with the imposition of martial law in 1972. The 1987 constitution mandates that local governments must have local autonomy.
Marcos' infrastructure projects were the feature policy of his term, he was the first president to be reelected, in 1969, although the election was tainted by violence and allegations of fraud and vote buying.
The 1969 election saw a similar election observation effort to 1953, although it did not receive as much backing or have as much impact.
While peace talks ultimately failed, the level of violence subsided from its peak in the early 1970s. Marcos framed his government as fighting against the rich landed elite that traditionally dominated politics.
Local elections in 1971 overturned Muslim political dominance in Mindanao, as Christian settlers who had previously voted for traditional Muslim leaders switched to voting for Christian representatives. Despite initiating a constitutional convention in 1971, Marcos declared martial law in 1972.
Further powers were given under the "Decentralization Act of 1967" (RA 5185), before local elections were abolished with the imposition of martial law in 1972. The 1987 constitution mandates that local governments must have local autonomy.
Local elections in 1971 overturned Muslim political dominance in Mindanao, as Christian settlers who had previously voted for traditional Muslim leaders switched to voting for Christian representatives. Despite initiating a constitutional convention in 1971, Marcos declared martial law in 1972.
The convention finalized the new constitution in November 1972.
Since the establishment of the 1898 Constitution, there have been only three new constitutions, implemented in 1935, 1973, and 1987.
The presidential system established with the 1935 Constitution was replaced by a semi-parliamentary system in 1973 under the authoritarian rule of President Marcos, concentrating power in his hands.
This Constitution, finished on October 15, 1986 and approved by referendum on February 2, 1987 restored the Presidential system, being based on the 1935 constitution rather than the 1973 one. All Presidents under the current constitution have proposed some type of constitutional reform, although none have succeeded.
While the 1935 constitution designated the President the Commander in Chief, the 1973 constitution was the first to explicitly include the principle of civilian control of the military.
It called for a semi-presidential government was approved in 1973 through shows of hands in citizen assemblies, a process that did not meet the requirements of the 1935 constitution for constitutional change.
The People Power Revolution drove Marcos from power, and Aquino became president following Congress officially declaring her the election winner. === Post–People Power era === Initially Aquino governed under a "freedom constitution", while setting up a constitutional commission to replace the 1973 constitution.
The new constitution did not cancel the effect of the previous one, and unless otherwise stated laws established under the 1973 constitution remained in effect.
Beginning with these referendums, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 15. In a 1974 Presidential Decree, the barrio subdivisions were renamed barangays.
6" of 1976 gave the executive the law-making powers of the legislature.
Marcos continued to rule by decree without elections until 1978, when the Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) legislature was elected.
The 1978 parliamentary and the 1980 local elections were dominated by Marcos' Kilusang Bagong Lipunan party.
Failed or suspected coups took place in the late 1980s, 2003, 2006, and 2007. Civilian oversight of the military includes a dedicated deputy ombudsman for the military, investigation by the Commission on Human Rights, and the jurisdiction of civilian courts.
The 1978 parliamentary and the 1980 local elections were dominated by Marcos' Kilusang Bagong Lipunan party.
Marcos ended martial law in 1981, shortly before a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II, although he retained immense executive powers.
Opposition groups still boycotted the 1981 presidential election, which Marcos easily won.
was slain upon his return to the country in 1983.
A united opposition participated in the 1984 parliamentary election, and made gains including defections from the ruling party.
To counter growing opposition, in 1985 Marcos called for a snap election that had no constitutional basis.
After the 1986 People Power Revolution brought President Aquino to power, she issued a proclamation establishing a temporary constitution, and created a constitution convention to create a new constitution.
This Constitution, finished on October 15, 1986 and approved by referendum on February 2, 1987 restored the Presidential system, being based on the 1935 constitution rather than the 1973 one. All Presidents under the current constitution have proposed some type of constitutional reform, although none have succeeded.
A constitutional commission was assembled after the 1986 People Power Revolution in part to consider the process of elections.
Two court later nullified two of the disqualifications. The 1986 commission also kept the "open ballot" system, where voters had to write the name of their chosen candidate on the voting form.
Marcos was declared the winner of the 1986 election, but the opposition refused to accept the result, alleging that the election was rigged.
By the end of her presidency, Arroyo was the most unpopular president since the 1986 People Power Revolution, with allegations of corruption, increases on taxes, attempts to amend the constitution, and the alleged illegitimacy of her administration as the reasons.
The strength of the Presidency combined with weak state institutions exacerbates corruption in the country. Under the 1987 constitution, the House of Representatives has the power to impeach the President through a vote of one-third of its members, and the Senate decides upon the case.
Since the establishment of the 1898 Constitution, there have been only three new constitutions, implemented in 1935, 1973, and 1987.
This Constitution, finished on October 15, 1986 and approved by referendum on February 2, 1987 restored the Presidential system, being based on the 1935 constitution rather than the 1973 one. All Presidents under the current constitution have proposed some type of constitutional reform, although none have succeeded.
Such considerations influenced the 1987 constitution; while it maintained the unitary state, it included provisions for autonomous regions and for stronger local government. The Civil Code of the Philippines is based on the Civil Code of Spain, which was extended to the Philippines on July 31, 1889.
Prior to the Marcos dictatorship, the country effectively had a two-party system, however the restriction of Presidents to one term in the 1987 has likely prevented that system from reemerging.
Under the 1987 constitution, elections above the barangay level are held every three years since 1992 on the second Monday of May, although senate seats, the presidency, and the vice presidency are only contested every six years since 1992. Ever since elections were first introduced by the United States, single-winner elections have been carried out using a plurality voting system: the candidate with the highest number of votes is elected.
Under the 1987 constitution all registered parties are allowed poll watchers, whereas under the previous system poll watchers were only allowed from the two main parties.
Further powers were given under the "Decentralization Act of 1967" (RA 5185), before local elections were abolished with the imposition of martial law in 1972. The 1987 constitution mandates that local governments must have local autonomy.
While article X of the 1987 constitution allows autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao, only the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) exists.
The 1987 constitution, approved via plebiscite, restored democracy along the lines of the 1935 constitution, although local elections became synchronized with national elections, term limits were put in place, and a multi-party system replaced the previous two-party system.
While local officials were initially appointed directly by Aquino, divisions in left-leaning groups who had opposed Marcos, and a related lack of participation in the 1987 legislative election, contributed to the traditional elite recapturing elected office.
A referendum held in 1989 led to four provinces voting to be part of the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM).
The 1989 Philippine coup d'état attempt led to rebellion and mutiny becoming crimes.
Eventually, the United Stated backed opposition coalition building, and in 1989 intervened to halt a coup against the new Aquino government.
In 1990 elections were held for a regional governor, a vice-governor, and for representatives in the Regional Assembly.
The influence of the United States decreased in the 1990s, when agreements to host American military bases ended and the country increased the regional aspects of its foreign policy.
The 1991 Local Government Code (Republic Act 7160) shifted some power away from the capital.
In 1991, a new Local Government Code shifted some power and resources to lower levels of government. As the 1992 election grew closer, Aquino declined to run even though she could do so, and instead supported Ramon Mitra; she later backtracked and threw her support to Fidel V.
Judicial power is vested in the courts with the Supreme Court of the Philippines as the highest judicial body. Elections are administered by an independent Commission on Elections every three years starting 1992.
Under the 1987 constitution, elections above the barangay level are held every three years since 1992 on the second Monday of May, although senate seats, the presidency, and the vice presidency are only contested every six years since 1992. Ever since elections were first introduced by the United States, single-winner elections have been carried out using a plurality voting system: the candidate with the highest number of votes is elected.
The 1992 and 2004 presidential elections were contested in court following accusations of electoral fraud.
In 1992 COMELEC adopted a strategic plan to modernize voting, and the first electronic vote-counting pilot test took place in the 1996 Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao general election.
It also reduced vote count time, with manual counting previously taking perhaps months. National and local elections began to be held on the same day from May 1992, following the passage of Republic Act (RA) 7166.
In 1992 32% of the representatives in the restored Congress were children of politicians, and 15% represented a third or fourth generation.
Amnesty was granted to those involved in past coup attempts in 1992.
In 1991, a new Local Government Code shifted some power and resources to lower levels of government. As the 1992 election grew closer, Aquino declined to run even though she could do so, and instead supported Ramon Mitra; she later backtracked and threw her support to Fidel V.
In 1992 COMELEC adopted a strategic plan to modernize voting, and the first electronic vote-counting pilot test took place in the 1996 Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao general election.
The Ramos administration privatized government monopolies, lowered economic regulation, hosted the 1996 APEC summit, reinstated the death penalty, signed the party list system act, repealed the anti-subversion law, devolved power away from the national government through the Local Government Code, signed a peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front, and bore the brunt of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.
In 1997 a law was based calling for the open ballots to be replaced by pre-printed ballots.
The Ramos administration privatized government monopolies, lowered economic regulation, hosted the 1996 APEC summit, reinstated the death penalty, signed the party list system act, repealed the anti-subversion law, devolved power away from the national government through the Local Government Code, signed a peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front, and bore the brunt of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.
However, this was not implemented until 1998. A group participating in the party-list system (which may not be running in any single-member constituencies) must receive 2% of votes cast to enter congress, and can win a maximum of three seats.
The 1998 election saw 123 organizations run, and only 32% of voters selecting a party-list organization, meaning only 13 organizations passed the 2% threshold taking up only 14 of the 52 seats allocated to party-list organizations.
He was unable to fulfil his desire to amend the constitution, following opposition from Aquino and other sectors. Ramos' vice president Joseph Estrada defeated the former's party mate Jose de Venecia and several others in the 1998 election with a comfortable margin, running a populist campaign that appealed directly to poorer voters.
In the run-up to the 2001 election COMELEC approved over 160 organizations.
Political advertising was allowed beginning in 2001.
However, the military has remained more involved in politics than it was before martial law, playing a role in the 2001 Second EDSA Revolution which overthrew President Estrada.
Days later, in what would be called the EDSA II, the Armed Forces of the Philippines withdrew their support to Estrada and transferred their allegiance to Vice President Arroyo; the Supreme Court later ruled the presidency as vacant, and Estrada left Malacañang Palace. Arroyo was sworn in as president on January 20, 2001.
Arroyo's People Power Coalition won a majority of seats in the 2001 elections and therefore consolidated power.
On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902 with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar. American belief in the importance of the rule of law defined its political approach to the Philippines, with its laws and constitutional traditions replicated in their new possessions and applying to Americans and natives alike.
Failed or suspected coups took place in the late 1980s, 2003, 2006, and 2007. Civilian oversight of the military includes a dedicated deputy ombudsman for the military, investigation by the Commission on Human Rights, and the jurisdiction of civilian courts.
In 2003, Arroyo put down a coup attempt in the central business district.
The 1992 and 2004 presidential elections were contested in court following accusations of electoral fraud.
However, some elections have been won without the Visayas or Mindanao, and in a single case, the 2004 election, the Presidency was won without a plurality in Luzon.
She faced Fernando Poe Jr., a friend of Estrada, along with three others in 2004, and won on a slim plurality.
Failed or suspected coups took place in the late 1980s, 2003, 2006, and 2007. Civilian oversight of the military includes a dedicated deputy ombudsman for the military, investigation by the Commission on Human Rights, and the jurisdiction of civilian courts.
Failed or suspected coups took place in the late 1980s, 2003, 2006, and 2007. Civilian oversight of the military includes a dedicated deputy ombudsman for the military, investigation by the Commission on Human Rights, and the jurisdiction of civilian courts.
The opposition united in the 2007 Senate election and won easily, but Arroyo's allies still held the House of Representatives.
Localized instances of martial law have been declared in 2009 and 2017, both in Mindanao. ===Catholic Church=== The influence of the church in civil society dates back to the Spanish era, when the church exercised considerable secular power.
However, it was not until the May 2010 elections that electronic vote-counting was used for a national election.
In 2010 over half of the members of the house of representatives and over half of all Governors were related to someone who had been in Congress over the previous 20 years.
Despite this unpopularity there was no mass movement to replace Arroyo, in part due to fatigue from previous people power movements which were regarded as having brought about too little change. Before the 2010 election, Arroyo's party nominated Gilberto Teodoro for president; however, some quarters suggested that Arroyo was secretly supporting Manny Villar, who was the front-runner.
A symbolic moment for church influence was the passing of the Reproductive Health Act of 2012 by the Benigno Aquino administration.
The President directly controlled the Philippine Development Assistance Fund until the Supreme Court declared this unconstitutional in 2013.
In 2015 over 60% of high-level local elective offices were held by a dynastic candidate.
However, with natural calamities, and scams on the use of pork barrel and other discretionary funds coming into the light, the Aquino administration had to contend with rising opposition. In 2016, Aquino's handpicked successor, Mar Roxas, was decisively defeated by Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte in the 2016 Presidential Election.
Localized instances of martial law have been declared in 2009 and 2017, both in Mindanao. ===Catholic Church=== The influence of the church in civil society dates back to the Spanish era, when the church exercised considerable secular power.
A 2018 law confirmed through a 2019 plebiscite transformed the ARMM into the more powerful BARMM.
A 2018 law confirmed through a 2019 plebiscite transformed the ARMM into the more powerful BARMM.
The opposition was wiped out in the 2019 midterms, where all of its senatorial candidates lost, and only a handful of winners in the lower house. == See also == Sovereignty of the Philippines == References == == Further reading == Philippines
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