Rousseau deepened this line of thinking in Emile, or On Education, where he argued that subordination of students to teachers and memorization of facts would not lead to an education. ===Johann Bernhard Basedow=== In Germany, Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790) established the Philanthropinum at Dessau in 1774.
Pupils had equal voting rights with school staff. ===United States=== ====Early practitioners==== Fröbel's student Margarethe Schurz founded the first kindergarten in the United States at Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1856, and she also inspired Elizabeth Peabody, who went on to found the first English-speaking kindergarten in the United States – the language at Schurz's kindergarten had been German, to serve an immigrant community – in Boston in 1860.
The German émigré Adolph Douai had also founded a kindergarten in Boston in 1859, but was obliged to close it after only a year.
Pupils had equal voting rights with school staff. ===United States=== ====Early practitioners==== Fröbel's student Margarethe Schurz founded the first kindergarten in the United States at Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1856, and she also inspired Elizabeth Peabody, who went on to found the first English-speaking kindergarten in the United States – the language at Schurz's kindergarten had been German, to serve an immigrant community – in Boston in 1860.
By 1866, however, he was founding others in New York City. William Heard Kilpatrick (1871–1965) was a pupil of Dewey and one of the most effective practitioners of the concept as well as the more adept at proliferating the progressive education movement and spreading word of the works of Dewey.
Today his method of education is practiced in nearly 3000 institutions set up around the world by the members of the Salesian Society he founded in 1873. ===Cecil Reddie=== While studying for his doctorate in Göttingen in 1882–1883, Cecil Reddie was greatly impressed by the progressive educational theories being applied there.
In 1875 Francis Parker became superintendent of schools in Quincy, Massachusetts, after spending two years in Germany studying emerging educational trends on the continent.
His ideas also reached Japan, where it turned into "Taisho-era Free Education Movement" (Taisho Jiyu Kyoiku Undo) ===John Dewey=== In the United States the "Progressive Education Movement", starting in the 1880s and lasting for sixty years, helped boost American public schools from a budding idea to the established norm.
John Dewey, a principal figure in this movement from the 1880s to 1904, set the tone for educational philosophy as well as concrete school reforms.
Paul Robin implemented progressive principles at the Prévost orphanage between 1880 and 1894.
Today his method of education is practiced in nearly 3000 institutions set up around the world by the members of the Salesian Society he founded in 1873. ===Cecil Reddie=== While studying for his doctorate in Göttingen in 1882–1883, Cecil Reddie was greatly impressed by the progressive educational theories being applied there.
In 1883 Parker left Massachusetts to become Principal of the Cook County Normal School in Chicago, a school that also served to train teachers in Parker's methods.
Reddie founded Abbotsholme School in Derbyshire, England, in 1889.
Paul Robin implemented progressive principles at the Prévost orphanage between 1880 and 1894.
In 1894 Parker's Talks on Pedagogics, which drew heavily on the thinking of Fröbel, Pestalozzi and Herbart, became one of the first American writings on education to gain international fame. That same year, philosopher John Dewey moved from the University of Michigan to the newly established University of Chicago where he became chair of the department of philosophy, psychology and education.
Moving away from an early interest in Hegel, Dewey proceeded to reject all forms of dualism and dichotomy in favor of a philosophy of experience as a series of unified wholes in which everything can be ultimately related. In 1896, John Dewey opened what he called the laboratory school to test his theories and their sociological implications.
Beginning in 1897 John Dewey published a summary of his theory on progressive education in School Journal.
His theoretical standpoints are divided into five sections outlined below. ====What education is==== Education according to Dewey is the "participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race" (Dewey, 1897, para.
It conceives the school as a place where certain information is to be given, where certain lessons are to be learned, or where certain habits are to be formed" (Dewey, 1897, para.
17) Dewey felt that as education is a social construct, it is, therefore, a part of society and should reflect the community. "Education is the process of living and is not meant to be the preparation of future living", (Dewey, 1897), so the school must represent the present life.
Furthermore, he feels that "progress is not in the succession of studies but in the development of new attitudes towards, and new interests in, experience" (Dewey, 1897, para.
To repress this process and attempt to "substitute the adult for the child" (Dewey, 1897, para.
52) would weaken the intellectual curiosity of the child. ====The school and social progress==== For Dewey, education, which regulates "the process of coming to share in the social consciousness," is the "only sure" method of ensuring social progress and reform (Dewey, 1897, para.
There are more than a thousand schools and many more early childhood centers worldwide; it has also become a popular form of [name=schulliste>[http://www.freunde-waldorf.de/fileadmin/user_upload/images/Waldorf_World_List/Waldorf_World_List.pdf Statistics for Waldorf schools worldwide ===Maria Montessori=== Maria Montessori (1870–1952) began to develop her philosophy and methods in 1897.
These skills differ from traditional academic skills in that they are not primarily content knowledge-based. == In the West == ===France=== Edmond Demolins was inspired by Abbotsholme and Bedales to found the École des Roches in Verneuil-sur-Avre in 1899.
Pearse's book The Murder Machine was a denunciation of the English school system of the time and a declaration of his own educational principles. ===Spain=== In Spain, the Escuela Moderna was founded in 1901 by Francisco Ferrer, a Catalan educator and anarchist.
John Dewey, a principal figure in this movement from the 1880s to 1904, set the tone for educational philosophy as well as concrete school reforms.
During her first experiment, which she implemented in a small elementary school as a young teacher in 1904, she noticed that when students are given freedom for self-direction and self-pacing and to help one another, their motivation increases considerably and they learn more.
Sebastien Faure in 1904 created a libertarian school 'La Ruche' (the Hive). ===Germany=== Hermann Lietz founded three Landerziehungsheime (country boarding schools) in 1904 based on Reddie's model for boys of different ages.
(references to be added). ===Robert Baden-Powell=== In July 1906, Ernest Thompson Seton sent Robert Baden-Powell a copy of his book The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians.
In recent years there has been a revival of international interest, particularly in England, Germany, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. ===Rudolf Steiner=== Rudolf Steiner (1869–1925) first described the principles of what was to become Waldorf education in 1907.
In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called Boy Patrols.
Baden Powell then wrote Scouting for Boys (London, 1908).
Notable pupils included Edmund Burke and Napper Tandy. Sgoil Éanna, or in English St Enda's was founded in 1908 by Pádraig Pearse on Montessori principles.
Baden-Powell and his sister Agnes Baden-Powell introduced the Girl Guides in 1910. ===Comparison with traditional education=== Traditional education uses extrinsic motivation, such as grades and prizes.
Edith and Paul Geheeb founded Odenwaldschule in Heppenheim in the Odenwald in 1910 using their concept of progressive education, which integrated the work of the head and hand. ===Poland=== Janusz Korczak was one notable follower and developer of Pestalozzi's ideas.
In a later experiment in 1911 and 1912, Parkhurst re-organized the education in a large school for nine- to fourteen-year-olds.
Although Montessori education spread to the United States in 1911 there were conflicts with the American educational establishment and was opposed by William Heard Kilpatrick.
In a later experiment in 1911 and 1912, Parkhurst re-organized the education in a large school for nine- to fourteen-year-olds.
Hawker had been impressed by his visit to Montessori's Casa dei Bambini in Rome, he gave numerous talks on Montessori's work after 1912, assisting in generating a national interest in her work.
In 1912, Dewey sent out students of his philosophy to found The Park School of Buffalo and The Park School of Baltimore to put it into practice.
However Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there. In 1914 the Montessori Society in England organised its first conference.
He organised the Montessori Conference 1914 in partnership with Edmond Holmes, ex-Chief Inspector of Schools, who had written a government report on Montessori.
Its former assistant headmaster Thomas MacDonagh and other teachers including Pearse; games master Con Colbert; Pearse's brother, Willie, the art teacher, and Joseph Plunkett, and occasional lecturer in English, were executed by the British after the 1916 Rising.
This second experiment formed the basis for the next experiments, those in Dalton and New York, from 1919 onwards.
He established a series of schools based on these principles beginning in 1919.
He implemented his ideas with the founding of Summerhill School in 1921.
However Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there. In 1914 the Montessori Society in England organised its first conference.
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