It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Mongols, but soon took over other military and administrative duties, centralizing authority under the crown.
In the midst of "many glories", he writes, "signs of decay and even collapse were becoming apparent". After the death of the Kangxi Emperor in the winter of 1722, his fourth son, Prince Yong (雍親王), became the Yongzheng Emperor.
In 1723 he outlawed Christianity and expelled Christian missionaries, though some were allowed to remain in the capital.
From 1724 to 1858, it was the period of proscription.
In 1724, the Yongzheng emperor (1678–1735) announced that Christianity was a "heterodox teaching" and hence proscribed.
The Yongzheng emperor made a parent corporation comprising those forty individual houses in 1725 known as the Cohong system.
These campaigns drained the treasury but established the emperor's control of the military and military finance. The Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735.
The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Inner Asia.
After the conquests of the 1750s and 1760s, the court organized agricultural colonies in Xinjiang.
The Qing response, successful for a time, was to establish the Canton System in 1756, which restricted maritime trade to that city (modern-day Guangzhou) and gave monopoly trading rights to private Chinese merchants.
The Kumul Khanate, which was incorporated into the Qing empire as a vassal after helping Qing defeat the Zunghars in 1757, maintained its status after Xinjiang turned into a province through the end of the dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution up until 1930.
Firmly established by 1757, the Canton Cohong was an association of thirteen business firms that had been awarded exclusive rights to conduct trade with Western merchants in Canton.
The Qing nonetheless used superior armament and logistics to expand deeply into Central Asia, defeat the Dzungar Mongols in 1759, and complete their conquest of Xinjiang.
After the conquests of the 1750s and 1760s, the court organized agricultural colonies in Xinjiang.
Xinjiang, also known as Chinese Turkestan, was subdivided into the regions north and south of the Tian Shan mountains, also known today as Dzungaria and Tarim Basin respectively, but the post of Ili General was established in 1762 to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over both regions.
The Qianlong Emperor sponsored the largest collection of writings in Chinese history, the Siku Quanshu, completed in 1782.
It was the fourth largest empire in world history in terms of territorial size in 1790, also making it the largest Chinese dynasty.
The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Inner Asia.
The British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments. In 1793, the British East India Company, with the support of the British government, sent a delegation to China under Lord George Macartney in order to open free trade and put relations on a basis of equality.
In garrisons and towns in Manchuria Han Chinese made up 80% of the population. In 1796, open rebellion broke out among followers of the White Lotus Society, who blamed Qing officials, saying "the officials have forced the people to rebel." Officials in other parts of the country were also blamed for corruption, failing to keep the famine relief granaries full, poor maintenance of roads and waterworks, and bureaucratic factionalism.
There were many persecutions and reverses in the 18th century and by 1800 there was little help from the main supporters in France, Spain and Portugal.
From roughly 1550 to 1800 China proper experienced a second commercial revolution, developing naturally from the first commercial revolution of the Song period which saw the emergence of long-distance inter-regional trade of luxury goods.
The White Lotus Rebellion continued for eight years, until 1804, when badly run, corrupt, and brutal campaigns finally ended it. === Rebellion, unrest and external pressure === At the start of the dynasty, the Chinese empire continued to be the hegemonic power in East Asia.
Before his departure on January 31, 1807, he received missionary training from David Bogue (1750–1825) at the Gosport Academy.
Upon his arrival at Canton on September 6, 1807, Morrison followed Bogue's instruction, learned the language, and proceeded with translation and publication work on the Bible.
Meanwhile, for sustaining his living and securing his legal residence in Canton, Morrison got approval from the LMS and, thus, accepted the employment of the East India Company and worked as a translator since 1809.
In 1811, Christian religious activities were further criminalized by the Jiaqing Emperor (1760–1820).
Meanwhile, they founded the first Asian Protestant seminary (the Anglo-Chinese College) in Malacca in 1818, which adopted the Gosport curriculum.
Morrison, assisted by William Milne (1785–1822) who was sent by the LMS, finished the translation of the entire Bible in 1819.
Han migrants were at first forbidden from permanently settling in the Tarim Basin but were the ban was lifted after the invasion by Jahangir Khoja in the 1820s.
In 1823, a newly arrived missionary refused to comply with Morrison's practice of accepting salary from a company which profited from the opium trade, and denounced that the opium trade contradicted the morality of Christianity.
The British and French after 1905 were finally able to open lines to Burma and Vietnam. Protestant missionaries by the 1830s translated and printed Western science and medical textbooks.
I: The period of conflict, 1834-1860 (1910) * Vol.
Lin confiscated the stocks of opium without compensation in 1839, leading Britain to send a military expedition the following year. The First Opium War revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military.
By the 1840s, China was again becoming a major destination for Protestant and Catholic missionaries from Europe and the United States.
The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow to China.
In 1842, the Qing dynasty fought a war with the Sikh Empire (the last independent kingdom of India), resulting in a negotiated peace and a return to the status quo ante bellum. The Taiping Rebellion in the mid-19th century was the first major instance of anti-Manchu sentiment.
As Codified in the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing, the American treaty and the French treaty signed in 1844, and the 1858 Treaty of Tianjin, Christianity was distinguished from the local religions and protected.
Until its abolition after the Opium War in 1842, the Canton Cohong system was the only permitted avenue of Western trade into China, and thus became a booming hub of international trade by the early eighteenth century.
As Codified in the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing, the American treaty and the French treaty signed in 1844, and the 1858 Treaty of Tianjin, Christianity was distinguished from the local religions and protected.
Amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine, the rebellion not only posed the most serious threat towards Qing rulers, it has also been called the "bloodiest civil war of all time"; during its fourteen-year course from 1850 to 1864 between 20 and 30 million people died.
She entered the imperial palace in the 1850s as a concubine to the Xianfeng Emperor (r.
Hong Xiuquan, a failed civil service candidate, in 1851 launched an uprising in Guizhou province, and established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with Hong himself as king.
The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), a large-scale uprising that started in southern China, marched within miles of Beijing in 1853.
In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing. In 1856, Qing authorities, in searching for a pirate, boarded a ship, the Arrow, which the British claimed had been flying the British flag, an incident which led to the Second Opium War.
In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing. In 1856, Qing authorities, in searching for a pirate, boarded a ship, the Arrow, which the British claimed had been flying the British flag, an incident which led to the Second Opium War.
In 1858, facing no other options, the Xianfeng Emperor agreed to the Treaty of Tientsin, which contained clauses deeply insulting to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited access to all navigable Chinese rivers. Ratification of the treaty in the following year led to a resumption of hostilities.
Starting with the Cochinchina Campaign in 1858, France expanded control of Indochina.
From 1724 to 1858, it was the period of proscription.
As Codified in the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing, the American treaty and the French treaty signed in 1844, and the 1858 Treaty of Tianjin, Christianity was distinguished from the local religions and protected.
The Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s brought tepid attempts to modernize the country.
In 1860, with Anglo-French forces marching on Beijing, the emperor and his court fled the capital for the imperial hunting lodge at Rehe.
In return for promises of support against the British and the French, the Russian Empire took large chunks of territory in the Northeast in 1860.
Manchuria was originally separated from China proper by the Inner Willow Palisade, a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese, as the area was off-limits to civilian Han Chinese until the government started colonizing the area, especially since the 1860s. With respect to these outer regions, the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of Tibetan Buddhism and protector of Muslims.
In 1860 British and French forces in the Second Opium War captured Beijing and sacked the Summer Palace.
According to Paul Cohen, from 1860 to 1900: Catholic missionaries of the 19th century arrived primarily from France.
During the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s and 1870s Confucian officials in several coastal provinces established an industrial base in military technology.
New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days' Reform of 1898 was turned back in a coup by the conservative Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908), who had been the dominant voice in the national government (with one interruption) after 1861.
When the Tongzhi Emperor came to the throne at the age of five in 1861, these officials rallied around him in what was called the Tongzhi Restoration.
1850–1861) and came to power in 1861 after her five-year-old son, the Tongzhi Emperor ascended the throne.
Between 1861 and 1873, she and Ci'an served as regents, choosing the reign title "Tongzhi" (ruling together).
II: The period of submission, 1861-1893 (1918) * Vol.
Amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine, the rebellion not only posed the most serious threat towards Qing rulers, it has also been called the "bloodiest civil war of all time"; during its fourteen-year course from 1850 to 1864 between 20 and 30 million people died.
It was not until 1864 that Qing armies under Zeng Guofan succeeded in crushing the revolt.
The period of cooperation between the reformers and the European powers ended with the Tientsin Massacre of 1870, which was incited by the murder of French nuns set off by the belligerence of local French diplomats.
During the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s and 1870s Confucian officials in several coastal provinces established an industrial base in military technology.
Between 1861 and 1873, she and Ci'an served as regents, choosing the reign title "Tongzhi" (ruling together).
Following the emperor's death in 1875, Cixi's nephew, the Guangxu Emperor, took the throne, in violation of the dynastic custom that the new emperor be of the next generation, and another regency began.
A British company built the Shanghai—Woosung line in 1876, obtaining the land under false pretenses, and it was soon torn up.
Pu Songling brought the short story to a new level in his Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, published in the mid-18th century, and Shen Fu demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, written in the early 19th century but published only in 1877.
They began establishing nurse training schools in China in the late 1880s, but nursing of sick men by women was rejected by local traditions, so the number of Chinese students was small until the practice became accepted in the 1930s.
British demand for tea increased exponentially up until they figured out how to grow it for themselves in the hills of northern India in the 1880s.
In the spring of 1881, Ci'an suddenly died, aged only forty-three, leaving Cixi as sole regent. From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, to 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the Summer Palace.
By 1883, France was in full control of the region and had reached the Chinese border.
The war ended in 1885 with the Treaty of Tientsin (1885) and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam. In 1884, pro-Japanese Koreans in Seoul led the Gapsin Coup.
However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884.
The war ended in 1885 with the Treaty of Tientsin (1885) and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam. In 1884, pro-Japanese Koreans in Seoul led the Gapsin Coup.
In the spring of 1881, Ci'an suddenly died, aged only forty-three, leaving Cixi as sole regent. From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, to 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the Summer Palace.
In 1894, male medical missionaries comprised 14% of all missionaries; female doctors were 4%.
To keep development in Chinese hands, the Qing government borrowed 34 billion taels of silver from foreign lenders for railway construction between 1894 and 1911.
III: The period of subjection, 1894-1911 (1918) Legible color maps. === Primary source collections and reference === Lists bureaucratic structure and offices, with standard translations. === Historiography === Chapters on: The problem with "China's response to the West" -- Moving beyond "Tradition and modernity" -- Imperialism: reality or myth? -- Toward a China-centered history of China. Rawski, Evelyn S.
The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were lost in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea and the possession of Taiwan.
Japanese Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi and Li Hongzhang signed the Convention of Tientsin, an agreement to withdraw troops simultaneously, but the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895 was a military humiliation.
The Beiyang Fleet was virtually destroyed and the modernized ground forces defeated in the 1895 First Sino-Japanese War.
On 1 November 1897, two German Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered in the southern part of Shandong province (the Juye Incident).
New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days' Reform of 1898 was turned back in a coup by the conservative Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908), who had been the dominant voice in the national government (with one interruption) after 1861.
In the spring of 1881, Ci'an suddenly died, aged only forty-three, leaving Cixi as sole regent. From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, to 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the Summer Palace.
The occupation prompted a "scramble for concessions" in 1898, which included the German lease of Jiazhou Bay, the Russian acquisition of Liaodong, and the British lease of the New Territories of Hong Kong. In the wake of these external defeats, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the Hundred Days' Reform of 1898.
When the Juye Incident by foreign powers triggered the violently anti-foreign and anti-imperialist "Boxers" in 1900, with many foreigners and Christians killed, the foreign powers invaded China.
In 1900, local groups of Boxers proclaiming support for the Qing dynasty murdered foreign missionaries and large numbers of Chinese Christians, then converged on Beijing to besiege the Foreign Legation Quarter.
The Qing created a New Army, but could not prevent the Eight Nation Alliance from invading China to put down the Boxer Uprising in 1900.
According to Paul Cohen, from 1860 to 1900: Catholic missionaries of the 19th century arrived primarily from France.
By 1900, there were about 1,400 Catholic priests and nuns in China serving nearly 1 million Catholics.
Conservative patriots hated and feared these alien, intruders." The missionaries and their converts were a prime target of attack and murder by Boxers in 1900. Medical missions in China by the late 19th century laid the foundations for modern medicine in China.
The Boxer Uprising occurred in 1900, in which the Chinese people in northern China stormed certain areas that they were barred from entering, such as the missionary stations and the legation areas in Beijing.
As late as 1900, only were in operation, with a further in the planning stage.
After 1900, Japan had a greater role in bringing modern science and technology to Chinese audiences but even then they reached chiefly the children of the rich landowning gentry, who seldom engaged in industrial careers. == Arts and culture == Under the Qing, inherited forms of art flourished and innovations occurred at many levels and in many types.
To overcome such problems, Cixi issued an imperial edict in 1901 calling for reform proposals from the governors-general and governors and initiated the era of the dynasty's "New Policies", also known as the "Late Qing Reform".
By 1901, China was the most popular destination for medical missionaries.
In 1901, shortly after the suppression of the uprising, a series of Protestant missionary accounts were published, pioneered by Arthur Smith (1845–1932).
The edict paved the way for the most far-reaching reforms in terms of their social consequences, including the creation of a national education system and the abolition of the imperial examinations in 1905. The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908 and Cixi died the following day.
Like previous dynasties, the Qing recruited officials via the imperial examination system, until the system was abolished in 1905.
The British and French after 1905 were finally able to open lines to Burma and Vietnam. Protestant missionaries by the 1830s translated and printed Western science and medical textbooks.
The Qing court responded by asserting Chinese sovereignty over Tibet, resulting in the 1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention signed between Britain and China.
After the deaths of the Guangxu Emperor and Cixi in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike by obstructing social reform.
The edict paved the way for the most far-reaching reforms in terms of their social consequences, including the creation of a national education system and the abolition of the imperial examinations in 1905. The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908 and Cixi died the following day.
The Wuchang Uprising on 10 October 1911 led to the Xinhai Revolution.
In April 1911 Zaifeng created a cabinet in which there were two vice-premiers.
This brought a wide range of negative opinions from senior officials like Zhang Zhidong. The Wuchang Uprising of 10 October 1911 was a success; by November, 14 of the 15 provinces had rejected Qing rule.
The revolt of a New Army corps in 1911 led to the fall of the dynasty. == Society == ===Population growth and mobility=== The most significant facts of early and mid-Qing social history was growth in population, population density, and mobility.
To keep development in Chinese hands, the Qing government borrowed 34 billion taels of silver from foreign lenders for railway construction between 1894 and 1911.
It was established in 1636, and ruled China proper from 1644 to 1912, with a brief restoration in 1917.
At a population of 432 million in 1912, it was the world's most populous country. The dynasty was founded by the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria.
General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on 12 February 1912, bringing the dynasty to an end.
Yuan Shikai was now a dictator—the ruler of China and the Manchu dynasty had lost all power; it formally abdicated in early 1912. On 12 February 1912, after rounds of negotiations, Longyu issued an imperial edict bringing about the abdication of the child emperor Puyi.
(皆惡廚陋習。只可用之於新親上門，上司入境) ==History and memory== ===Nationalism=== After 1912, writers, historians and scholars in China and abroad generally deprecated the failures of the late imperial system.
800 biographical articles on people who died 1644 to 1912.
It was established in 1636, and ruled China proper from 1644 to 1912, with a brief restoration in 1917.
It was restored briefly but ineffectively in 1917.
In July 1917, there was an abortive attempt to restore the Qing dynasty led by Zhang Xun, which was quickly reversed by republican troops.
Puyi are allowed to live in the Forbidden city after his abdication until the Beijing Coup happened in 1924, which general Feng Yuxiang forced Puyi to move out from the forbidden city.
In the 1930s, the Empire of Japan invaded Northeast China and founded Manchukuo in 1932, with Puyi as its emperor.
The Kumul Khanate, which was incorporated into the Qing empire as a vassal after helping Qing defeat the Zunghars in 1757, maintained its status after Xinjiang turned into a province through the end of the dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution up until 1930.
They began establishing nurse training schools in China in the late 1880s, but nursing of sick men by women was rejected by local traditions, so the number of Chinese students was small until the practice became accepted in the 1930s.
In the 1930s, the Empire of Japan invaded Northeast China and founded Manchukuo in 1932, with Puyi as its emperor.
Vol 1 of 1943 edition Internet Archive; Vol 2 Internet Archive Online at Internet Archive == Further reading == Morse, Hosea Ballou.
After the invasion by the Soviet Union, Manchukuo fell in 1945. == Government == The early Qing emperors adopted the bureaucratic structures and institutions from the preceding Ming dynasty but split rule between Han Chinese and Manchus, with some positions also given to Mongols.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, American scholars began to learn Manchu and took advantage of newly opened Chinese- and Manchu-language documents in the archives.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, American scholars began to learn Manchu and took advantage of newly opened Chinese- and Manchu-language documents in the archives.
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