In 1648, Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov, two Russian explorers, discovered the Bering Strait, and became the first Europeans to sail to North America. === Imperial Russia === Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721, and became one of the European great powers.
Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria (two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles), as well as the Governorate of Estonia and Livonia, securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.
Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia. The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–62 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–63).
However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia. Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–96, presided over the Age of Russian Enlightenment.
While in North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to reach and colonise Alaska. In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made, later followed by other notable Russian sea exploration voyages.
Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with Alexander I's (1801–25) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809, and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.
Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with Alexander I's (1801–25) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809, and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.
The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which more than 95% of the pan-European Grande Armée perished.
In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica. In alliances with various other European countries, Russia fought against Napoleon's France.
Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe. The officers of the Napoleonic Wars brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825.
Between 1847 and 1851, around one million people died across the country due to Asiatic cholera. Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–81) enacted significant changes in the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.
Between 1847 and 1851, around one million people died across the country due to Asiatic cholera. Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–81) enacted significant changes in the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.
Between 1847 and 1851, around one million people died across the country due to Asiatic cholera. Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–81) enacted significant changes in the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.
These Great Reforms spurred industrialisation and modernised the Russian army, which had successfully liberated Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in the 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War. The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia.
Alexander II was killed in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists and the reign of his son Alexander III (1881–94) was less liberal but more peaceful.
Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to twenty-six Russian and Soviet people in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace. Mikhail Lomonosov proposed the law of conservation of matter preceding the energy conservation law.
The last Russian Emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), was unable to prevent the events of the Russian Revolution of 1905, triggered by the unsuccessful Russo-Japanese War and the demonstration incident known as Bloody Sunday.
The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma of the Russian Empire.
The Stolypin agrarian reform led to a massive peasant migration and settlement into Siberia, and more than four million settlers arrived in the region between 1906 and 1914. === February Revolution and Russian Republic === In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies.
The Stolypin agrarian reform led to a massive peasant migration and settlement into Siberia, and more than four million settlers arrived in the region between 1906 and 1914. === February Revolution and Russian Republic === In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies.
In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army.
All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts. The February Revolution forced Nicholas II to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed in Yekaterinburg during the Russian Civil War.
On 1 September (14), 1917, upon a decree of the Provisional Government, the Russian Republic was proclaimed.
On 6 January (19), 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision).
Millions became White émigrés, and the Russian famine of 1921–22 claimed up to five million victims. === Soviet Union === On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by merging the Russian SFSR with the Ukrainian, Byelorussian, and the Transcaucasian SFSR.
Millions became White émigrés, and the Russian famine of 1921–22 claimed up to five million victims. === Soviet Union === On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by merging the Russian SFSR with the Ukrainian, Byelorussian, and the Transcaucasian SFSR.
Out of the 15 republics of the Soviet Union, the largest in size and population was the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union for its entire history politically, culturally, and economically. Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika was designated to take charge.
Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the official line.
Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s.
The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which killed between 2 and 3 million people in the Russian SFSR.
The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge, a period of mass repressions in 1937–38, during which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including original party members and military leaders forced to confess to nonexistent plots. Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivisation of its agriculture.
The Soviet Union made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time. ====World War II==== On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany broke their non-aggression treaty; and invaded the ill-prepared Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history, opening the largest theater of World War II.
Nearly 3 million Soviet POWs in German captivity were murdered in just eight months of 1941–42.
Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.
In August 1945, the Soviet Army ousted the Japanese from China's Manchukuo and North Korea, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan. The 1941–45 period of World War II is known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War." The Soviet Union together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered as the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council.
Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–43, and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.
Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–43, and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.
Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.
Under Stalin's administration and the leadership of such commanders as Georgy Zhukov and Konstantin Rokossovsky, Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May 1945.
Under Stalin's administration and the leadership of such commanders as Georgy Zhukov and Konstantin Rokossovsky, Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May 1945.
In August 1945, the Soviet Army ousted the Japanese from China's Manchukuo and North Korea, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan. The 1941–45 period of World War II is known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War." The Soviet Union together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered as the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council.
The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–47.
After becoming the world's second nuclear power, the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance, and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivaling United States and NATO. After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin's many crimes and atrocities and launched the policy of de-Stalinization.
At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space Age.
Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1 manned spacecraft on 12 April 1961.
Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader.
The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy and shifted the emphasis from [industry] and weapons to light industry and consumer goods but was stifled by the conservative Communist leadership.
The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation, a period when economic growth slowed and social policies became static.
In 1979, after a Communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War.
The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation, a period when economic growth slowed and social policies became static.
Ultimately, the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens. From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.
Ultimately, the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens. From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led to a deep and prolonged depression, characterised by a 50% decline in both GDP and industrial output between 1990 and 1995, although some of the recorded declines may have been a result of an upward bias in Soviet-era economic data.
The 1990s saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, the rise of criminal gangs and violent crime. In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended after military force.
In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers. The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections.
From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war has been fought between the rebel groups and the Russian Armed Forces.
The "territory" designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to the administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomous oblasts. 4 autonomous okrugs (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s.
In 1990, all of them except for the Jewish Autonomous Oblast were elevated in status to that of a republic. 3 federal cities (Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Sevastopol): major cities that function as separate regions. Federal districts Federal subjects are grouped into eight federal districts, each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia.
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation.
Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits, and explosive growth in the money supply leading to inflation. By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.
In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged. === Post-Soviet Russia (1991–present) === In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected president in Russian history when he was elected President of the Russian SFSR, which became the independent Russian Federation in December of that year.
In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the Ruble.
In the aftermath of the constitutional crisis of 1993, a new constitution was adopted, and Russia has since been governed as a federal semi-presidential republic.
The 1990s saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, the rise of criminal gangs and violent crime. In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended after military force.
In 1993, when the new constitution was adopted, there were 89 federal subjects listed, but later some of them were merged.
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led to a deep and prolonged depression, characterised by a 50% decline in both GDP and industrial output between 1990 and 1995, although some of the recorded declines may have been a result of an upward bias in Soviet-era economic data.
A total of 415 animal species were included in the RDBRF in 1997; and are now protected.
High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, and resulted in a further GDP decline. ==== Putin era ==== On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed Prime Minister, Vladimir Putin.
High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, and resulted in a further GDP decline. ==== Putin era ==== On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed Prime Minister, Vladimir Putin.
Vladimir Putin has dominated Russia's political system since 2000, and his government has been accused of authoritarianism, numerous human rights abuses, and corruption. Russia is a great power, and is considered a potential superpower.
Putin then won the 2000 presidential election, and suppressed the Chechen insurgency.
Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002.
Putin went on to win a second presidential term in 2004.
Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its Freedom in the World survey.
Following the global economic crisis of 2008 and a subsequent drop in oil prices, Russia's economy stagnated in 2009.
Many reforms made during the Putin presidency have been criticised as authoritarian, while Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability, and prosperity has won him widespread admiration in Russia. On 2 March 2008, Dmitry Medvedev was elected President of Russia while Putin became Prime Minister.
Following the global economic crisis of 2008 and a subsequent drop in oil prices, Russia's economy stagnated in 2009.
And from 2010 to 2013, Russia enjoyed high economic growth; until falling oil prices coupled with international sanctions after the annexation of Crimea and the Russo-Ukrainian War led to the economy shrinking in 2015, though it rebounded in 2016, and the recession officially ended.
Alleged fraud in the 2011 parliamentary elections and Putin's return to the presidency in 2012 sparked mass protests, which lasted until 2013. In 2014, after President Viktor Yanukovych of Ukraine fled as a result of a revolution, Putin requested and received authorisation from the Russian parliament to deploy Russian troops to Ukraine, leading to the takeover of Crimea.
Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 124th out of 167 countries for 2020.
Putin returned to the presidency following the 2012 presidential elections, and Medvedev was appointed Prime Minister.
Alleged fraud in the 2011 parliamentary elections and Putin's return to the presidency in 2012 sparked mass protests, which lasted until 2013. In 2014, after President Viktor Yanukovych of Ukraine fled as a result of a revolution, Putin requested and received authorisation from the Russian parliament to deploy Russian troops to Ukraine, leading to the takeover of Crimea.
And from 2010 to 2013, Russia enjoyed high economic growth; until falling oil prices coupled with international sanctions after the annexation of Crimea and the Russo-Ukrainian War led to the economy shrinking in 2015, though it rebounded in 2016, and the recession officially ended.
Alleged fraud in the 2011 parliamentary elections and Putin's return to the presidency in 2012 sparked mass protests, which lasted until 2013. In 2014, after President Viktor Yanukovych of Ukraine fled as a result of a revolution, Putin requested and received authorisation from the Russian parliament to deploy Russian troops to Ukraine, leading to the takeover of Crimea.
Alleged fraud in the 2011 parliamentary elections and Putin's return to the presidency in 2012 sparked mass protests, which lasted until 2013. In 2014, after President Viktor Yanukovych of Ukraine fled as a result of a revolution, Putin requested and received authorisation from the Russian parliament to deploy Russian troops to Ukraine, leading to the takeover of Crimea.
And from 2010 to 2013, Russia enjoyed high economic growth; until falling oil prices coupled with international sanctions after the annexation of Crimea and the Russo-Ukrainian War led to the economy shrinking in 2015, though it rebounded in 2016, and the recession officially ended.
The annexation of Crimea led to sanctions by Western countries, after which the Russian government responded with counter-sanctions against a number of countries. In September 2015, Russia started military intervention in the Syrian Civil War in support of the Syrian government, consisting of airstrikes against militant groups of the Islamic State, al-Nusra Front (al-Qaeda in the Levant), the Army of Conquest and other rebel groups.
And from 2010 to 2013, Russia enjoyed high economic growth; until falling oil prices coupled with international sanctions after the annexation of Crimea and the Russo-Ukrainian War led to the economy shrinking in 2015, though it rebounded in 2016, and the recession officially ended.
In 2016, the oil-and-gas sector accounted for 36% of federal budget revenues.
Since 2016, Russia is the largest exporter of wheat in the world. While large farms concentrate mainly on grain production and animal husbandry, while small private [plot]s produce most of the country's potatoes, vegetables and fruits.
During March 2017 and October 2018, the country saw mass protests, which were primarily concerned with suppressing corruption in the Russian government and abandoning the planned retirement age hike.
During March 2017 and October 2018, the country saw mass protests, which were primarily concerned with suppressing corruption in the Russian government and abandoning the planned retirement age hike.
Amidst of the protests, during March 2018, Putin was elected for a fourth presidential term overall. During July to September 2019, protests were held in Moscow, which was caused by the rejection to allow the independent candidates to participate in the 2019 Moscow City Duma election.
The average nominal salary in Russia was ₽51,083 per month in 2020, and 12.9% of Russians lived below the national poverty line in 2018.
Russia is the home to the finest caviar in the world; and maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets, ranking sixth in the world in tonnage of fish caught; capturing 4,773,413 tons of fish in 2018. === Science and technology === Russia's research and development budget is the ninth-highest in the world, with an expenditure of approximately 422 billion rubles on domestic research and development.
Amidst of the protests, during March 2018, Putin was elected for a fourth presidential term overall. During July to September 2019, protests were held in Moscow, which was caused by the rejection to allow the independent candidates to participate in the 2019 Moscow City Duma election.
Russia has the fourth-highest military expenditure in the world, spending $65.1 billion in 2019.
In 2019, Russia was the world's third-biggest exporter of arms, behind only the United States and China. ===Human rights and corruption === Russia's [rights in Russia|human rights] management has been increasingly criticised by leading democracy and human rights watchdogs.
Approximately 4.5% of Russians were unemployed in 2019, and officially more than 70% Russia's population is categorised as middle class; which has been disputed by some experts.
By the end of December 2019, Russian foreign trade turnover reached $666.6 billion.
In 2019, the Natural Resources and Environment Ministry estimated the value of natural resources to 60% of the country's GDP.
It ranked 28th of 190 countries in the 2019 Ease of Doing Business Index.
The country is the world's fourth-largest electricity producer, and the ninth-largest renewable energy producer in 2019.
In 2019, It was the world's fourth-largest nuclear energy producer. === Agriculture and fishery === Russia has the fourth-largest cultivated area in the world, at ; possessing 7.4% of the world's total arable land.
In 2019, Russia was ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications.
In January 2020, substantial amendments to the constitution were proposed and took effect in July following a national vote, allowing Putin to run for two more six-year presidential terms after his current term ends.
Since July 2020, protests have been continuing in Khabarovsk Krai and other regions of Siberia, which was caused by the arrest of Sergei Furgal.
Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 124th out of 167 countries for 2020.
Russia was ranked 149th out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2020. Russia was the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2020; ranking 129th out of 180 countries.
The average nominal salary in Russia was ₽51,083 per month in 2020, and 12.9% of Russians lived below the national poverty line in 2018.
In April 2021, Putin signed the constitutional change into law.
In January 2021, widespread protests began across the country, due to the arrest of opposition leader Alexei Navalny, and have been ongoing. == Politics == According to the Constitution of Russia, the country is an asymmetric federation and semi-presidential republic, wherein the President is the [of state], and the Prime Minister is the [of government].
According to the IMF, Russia's GDP per capita by PPP is $29,485 as of 2021.
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