15 , in "American Military History, Volume I: The United States Army and the Forging of a Nation, 1775–1917" , Center of Military History, United States Army.
From Colony to Superpower: US Foreign Relations Since 1776 (2008), the latest survey Hoganson, Kristin.
The pro-slavery element proposed the Ostend Manifesto proposal of 1854.
The war gave both sides a common enemy for the first time since the end of the Civil War in 1865, and many friendships were formed between soldiers of northern and southern states during their tours of duty.
"The Imperialist Impulse and American Innocence, 1865–1900," in Gerald K.
15, Issue 2. LaFeber, Walter, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1865–1898 (1963) Leeke, Jim.
Historians note that there was no popular demand in the United States for an overseas colonial empire. ==Path to war== ===Cuban struggle for independence=== The first serious bid for Cuban independence, the Ten Years' War, erupted in 1868 and was subdued by the authorities a decade later.
There had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873.
Politics, Strategy, and American Diplomacy: Studies in Foreign Policy, 1873–1917 (1966) pp. 239–66 on "The breakdown of neutrality: McKinley goes to war with Spain" Hamilton, Richard.
Neither the fighting nor the reforms in the Pact of Zanjón (February 1878) quelled the desire of some revolutionaries for wider autonomy and, ultimately, independence.
rapidly built a powerful naval fleet of steel warships in the 1880s and 1890s.
Cánovas made clear in an address to the University of Madrid in 1882 his view of the Spanish nation as based on shared cultural and linguistic elements—on both sides of the Atlantic—that tied Spain's territories together. Cánovas saw Spanish colonialism as more "benevolent" than that of other European colonial powers.
(If the data is to be believed, Cook, born October 10, 1885, would have been only 12 years old when he served in the war.) The Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States (VFW) was formed in 1914 from the merger of two veterans organizations which both arose in 1899: the American Veterans of Foreign Service and the National Society of the Army of the Philippines.
But in the late 1890s, American public opinion swayed in support of the rebellion due to reports of concentration camps (death estimates range from 150,000 to 400,000 people) set up to control the populace.
rapidly built a powerful naval fleet of steel warships in the 1880s and 1890s.
The Army wanted 50,000 new men but received over 220,000 through volunteers and the mobilization of state National Guard units, even gaining nearly 100,000 men on the first night after the explosion of USS Maine. === Historiography === The overwhelming consensus of observers in the 1890s, and historians ever since, is that an upsurge of humanitarian concern with the plight of the Cubans was the main motivating force that caused the war with Spain in 1898.
Only Oklahoma Territory Pawnee Indian, Tom Isbell, wounded seven times, survived. Regular Spanish troops were mostly armed with modern charger-loaded, 7mm 1893 Spanish Mauser rifles and using smokeless powder.
The Panic of 1893 was over by this point, and the U.S.
In 1894, 90% of Cuba's total exports went to the United States, which also provided 40% of Cuba's imports.
Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897–1898 and was an aggressive supporter of an American war with Spain over Cuban interests. Meanwhile, the "Cuba Libre" movement, led by Cuban intellectual José Martí until he died in 1895, had established offices in Florida.
In early 1895, after years of organizing, Martí launched a three-pronged invasion of the island. The plan called for one group from Santo Domingo led by Máximo Gómez, one group from Costa Rica led by Antonio Maceo Grajales, and another from the United States (preemptively thwarted by U.S.
War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898 (2006) online review ==Further reading== Auxier, George W.
Spanish–American diplomatic relations preceding the war of 1898 (Johns Hopkins UP, 1906) online free Foner, Philip, The Spanish–Cuban–American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, 1895–1902 (1972), A Marxist interpretation Freidel, Frank.
War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895–1898 (2006) US War Dept.
At the time, the Germans expected the confrontation in the Philippines to end in an American defeat, with the revolutionaries capturing Manila and leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking. Commodore Dewey transported Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino leader who led rebellion against Spanish rule in the Philippines in 1896, from exile in Hong Kong to the Philippines to rally more Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government.
Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897–1898 and was an aggressive supporter of an American war with Spain over Cuban interests. Meanwhile, the "Cuba Libre" movement, led by Cuban intellectual José Martí until he died in 1895, had established offices in Florida.
He was assassinated in 1897 by Italian anarchist Michele Angiolillo, leaving a Spanish political system that was not stable and could not risk a blow to its prestige. ===US response=== The eruption of the Cuban revolt, Weyler's measures, and the popular fury these events whipped up proved to be a boon to the newspaper industry in New York City.
In 1897 McKinley appointed Stewart L.
In October 1897, the Spanish government refused the United States' offer to negotiate between the Spanish and the Cubans, but promised the U.S.
After years of severe depression, the economic outlook for the domestic economy was suddenly bright again in 1897.
McKinley put it succinctly in late 1897 that if Spain failed to resolve its crisis, the United States would see "a duty imposed by our obligations to ourselves, to civilization and humanity to intervene with force." Intervention in terms of negotiating a settlement proved impossible—neither Spain nor the insurgents would agree.
The revolution had been in a state of truce since the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato in 1897, with revolutionary leaders having accepted exile outside of the country. Lt.
With the German seizure of Tsingtao in 1897, Dewey's squadron had become the only naval force in the Far East without a local base of its own, and was beset with coal and ammunition problems.
In 1897, the United States purchased 19.6 percent of Puerto Rico's exports while supplying 18.5 percent of its imports.
From 1897 to 1901, coffee went from 65.8 percent of exports to 19.6 percent while sugar went from 21.6 percent to 55 percent.
The Spanish–American War (Guerra hispano-estadounidense or Guerra hispano-americana; Digmaang Espanyol-Amerikano) was an armed conflict between Spain and the United States in 1898.
However, after the United States Navy armored cruiser Maine mysteriously exploded and sank in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed McKinley into a war that he had wished to avoid. On April 20, 1898, McKinley signed a joint Congressional resolution demanding Spanish withdrawal and authorizing the President to use military force to help Cuba gain independence.
Madrid sued for peace after two Spanish squadrons were sunk in the battles of Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay, and a third, more modern fleet was recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts. The result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S.
on February 15, 1898, Maine sank in Havana Harbor after suffering a massive explosion.
Historian Nick Kapur argues that McKinley's actions as he moved toward war were rooted not in various pressure groups but in his deeply held "Victorian" values, especially arbitration, pacifism, humanitarianism, and manly self-restraint. A speech delivered by Republican Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont on March 17, 1898, thoroughly analyzed the situation and greatly strengthened the pro-war cause.
President McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20, 1898, and the ultimatum was sent to Spain.
In the spring of 1898, the strength of the U.S.
The Army wanted 50,000 new men but received over 220,000 through volunteers and the mobilization of state National Guard units, even gaining nearly 100,000 men on the first night after the explosion of USS Maine. === Historiography === The overwhelming consensus of observers in the 1890s, and historians ever since, is that an upsurge of humanitarian concern with the plight of the Cubans was the main motivating force that caused the war with Spain in 1898.
Louis Perez states, "Certainly the moralistic determinants of war in 1898 has been accorded preponderant explanatory weight in the historiography." By the 1950s, however, American political scientists began attacking the war as a mistake based on idealism, arguing that a better policy would be realism.
On December 10, 1898, the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris.
troops began to take the place of the Spanish in control of the country after the end of the war, quickly escalating into the Philippine–American War. ===Guam=== On June 20, 1898, a U.S.
On June 29, 1898, a reconnaissance team in landing boats from the transports Florida and Fanita attempted to land on the beach, but were repelled by Spanish fire.
A second attempt was made on June 30, 1898, but a team of reconnaissance soldiers was trapped on the beach near the mouth of the Tallabacoa River.
The 1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay happened between June 6 and 10, with the first U.S.
Still, when the Ninth left, 73 of its 984 soldiers had contracted the disease. ===Puerto Rico=== On May 24, 1898, in a letter to Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge wrote, "Porto Rico is not forgotten and we mean to have it". In the same month, Lt.
government before the invasion. The American offensive began on May 12, 1898, when a squadron of 12 U.S.
On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito in a mountain known as Cerro Gervasio del Asomante and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured.
Fearing for the safety of the Spanish coast, the Spanish Ministry of Marine recalled Cámara's squadron, which by then had reached the Red Sea, on 7 July 1898.
After the sickness and death of British consul Edward Henry Rawson-Walker, American admiral George Dewey requested the Belgian consul to Manila, Édouard André, to take Rawson-Walker's place as intermediary with the Spanish government. Hostilities were halted on August 12, 1898, with the signing in Washington of a Protocol of Peace between the United States and Spain.
After over two months of difficult negotiations, the formal peace treaty, the Treaty of Paris, was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898, and was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899. The United States gained Spain's colonies of the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico in the treaty, and Cuba became a U.S.
Having been occupied since July 17, 1898, and thus under the jurisdiction of the United States Military Government (USMG), Cuba formed its own civil government and gained independence on May 20, 1902, with the announced end of USMG jurisdiction over the island.
As historian Louis Pérez argued in his book Cuba in the American Imagination: Metaphor and the Imperial Ethos, the Spanish–American War of 1898 "fixed permanently how Americans came to think of themselves: a righteous people given to the service of righteous purpose". === Aftermath in Spain === The war greatly reduced the Spanish Empire.
The defeat in the war began the weakening of the fragile political stability that had been established earlier by the rule of Alfonso XII. === Teller and Platt Amendments === The Teller Amendment was passed in the Senate on April 19, 1898, with a vote of 42 for versus 35 against.
The Teller Amendment, which was enacted on April 20, 1898, was a promise from the United States to the Cuban people that it was not declaring war to annex Cuba, but to help it gain its independence from Spain.
Before 1898 the sugar industry in Puerto Rico was in decline for nearly half a century.
The Spanish–American War, 1898.
"The Cuba Company and the Expansion of American Business in Cuba, 1898–1915".
"The Political Economy of Sugar Production and the Environment of Eastern Cuba, 1898–1923".
The Spanish–American War and Philippine Insurrection, 1898–1902: An Annotated Bibliography (Routledge Research Guides to American Military Studies) (2010) Benton, Elbert Jay.
Spanish–American diplomatic relations preceding the war of 1898 (Johns Hopkins UP, 1906) online free Foner, Philip, The Spanish–Cuban–American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, 1895–1902 (1972), A Marxist interpretation Freidel, Frank.
"A Splendid Little War." The Spanish–American War, 1898.
"When Communication Fails: Spanish–American Crisis Diplomacy 1898," Amerikastudien, 2007, Vol.
American National Identity, the War of 1898, and the Rise of American Imperialism (2006) Miller, Richard H.
ed., American Imperialism in 1898: The Quest for National Fulfillment (1970) Millis, Walter.
Marques, Madrid: 1898.
The Spanish War: An American Epic – 1898 (1984) Pérez Jr.
The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography University of North Carolina Press, 1998 Smith, Ephraim K.
The Expansionists of 1898 (1936) Schoonover, Thomas.
Uncle Sam's War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization.
"Emergence to World Power 1898–1902" Ch.
Washington, DC: GPO, 1898.
The Santiago Campaign, 1898.
Signal Corps Cutting and Diverting Undersea Telegraph Cables from Cuba Library of Congress Guide to the Spanish–American War Emergence to World Power, 1898–1902 (an extract from Matloff's American Military History a publication of the United States Army Center of Military History) Buffalo Soldiers at San Juan Hill Impact on the Spanish Army by Charles Hendricks Black Jack in Cuba – General John J.
On August 14, 1899, Spanish Captain-General Jaudenes formally capitulated and U.S.
After over two months of difficult negotiations, the formal peace treaty, the Treaty of Paris, was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898, and was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899. The United States gained Spain's colonies of the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico in the treaty, and Cuba became a U.S.
The treaty came into force in Cuba April 11, 1899, with Cubans participating only as observers.
(If the data is to be believed, Cook, born October 10, 1885, would have been only 12 years old when he served in the war.) The Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States (VFW) was formed in 1914 from the merger of two veterans organizations which both arose in 1899: the American Veterans of Foreign Service and the National Society of the Army of the Philippines.
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1899 (full text available here ) .
US Army Center for Military History, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1899 Wheeler, Joseph.
From 1897 to 1901, coffee went from 65.8 percent of exports to 19.6 percent while sugar went from 21.6 percent to 55 percent.
was the Cuban "Junta", under the leadership of Tomás Estrada Palma, who in 1902 became Cuba's first president.
Having been occupied since July 17, 1898, and thus under the jurisdiction of the United States Military Government (USMG), Cuba formed its own civil government and gained independence on May 20, 1902, with the announced end of USMG jurisdiction over the island.
However, with the imposition of the Platt Amendment of 1903 after the war, as well as economic and military manipulation on the part of the United States, Cuban sentiment towards the United States became polarized, with many Cubans disappointed with continuing American interference. ====Land campaign==== From June 22 to 24, the Fifth Army Corps under General William R.
Guantánamo Bay was established after the signing of the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations in 1903.
By 1905, these figures jumped to 84 percent and 85 percent, respectively.
Spanish–American diplomatic relations preceding the war of 1898 (Johns Hopkins UP, 1906) online free Foner, Philip, The Spanish–Cuban–American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, 1895–1902 (1972), A Marxist interpretation Freidel, Frank.
Internationa l law and diplomacy of the Spanish–American war (Johns Hopkins UP, 1908) online free Berner, Brad K.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1911 online edition Gould, Lewis.
(If the data is to be believed, Cook, born October 10, 1885, would have been only 12 years old when he served in the war.) The Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States (VFW) was formed in 1914 from the merger of two veterans organizations which both arose in 1899: the American Veterans of Foreign Service and the National Society of the Army of the Philippines.
entered a long and prosperous period of economic and population growth, and technological innovation that lasted through the 1920s. The war redefined national identity, served as a solution of sorts to the social divisions plaguing the American mind, and provided a model for all future news reporting. The idea of American imperialism changed in the public's mind after the short and successful Spanish–American War.
These include The Rough Riders, a 1927 silent film A Message to Garcia, 1936 Rough Riders, a 1997 television miniseries directed by John Milius, and featuring Tom Berenger (Theodore Roosevelt), Gary Busey (Joseph Wheeler), Sam Elliott (Buckey O'Neill), Dale Dye (Leonard Wood), Brian Keith (William McKinley), George Hamilton (William Randolph Hearst), and R.
They were exchanged on July 6, and Hobson became a national hero; he received the Medal of Honor in 1933, retired as a Rear Admiral and became a Congressman. ====US withdrawal==== Yellow fever had quickly spread among the American occupation force, crippling it.
These include The Rough Riders, a 1927 silent film A Message to Garcia, 1936 Rough Riders, a 1997 television miniseries directed by John Milius, and featuring Tom Berenger (Theodore Roosevelt), Gary Busey (Joseph Wheeler), Sam Elliott (Buckey O'Neill), Dale Dye (Leonard Wood), Brian Keith (William McKinley), George Hamilton (William Randolph Hearst), and R.
Today, that organization is defunct, but it left an heir in the Sons of Spanish–American War Veterans, created in 1937 at the 39th National Encampment of the United Spanish War Veterans.
"The Cuban question as reflected in the editorial columns of Middle Western newspapers (1895–1898)" (PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 1938) complete text online Barnes, Mar.
Louis Perez states, "Certainly the moralistic determinants of war in 1898 has been accorded preponderant explanatory weight in the historiography." By the 1950s, however, American political scientists began attacking the war as a mistake based on idealism, arguing that a better policy would be realism.
In 1974, Admiral Hyman George Rickover had his staff look at the documents and decided there was an internal explosion.
"William McKinley and the Coming of the Spanish–American War: A Study of the Besmirching and Redemption of an Historical Image," Diplomatic History 3 (Winter 1979): 77–97 Funston, Frederick.
Cook, died on September 10, 1992, at age 106.
"Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," Diplomatic History 16 (Fall 1992): 573–97 Cull, N.
Environmental History Review 19.04 (Winter 1995): 31–48.
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Books, Inc., 1996.
"From Open Door to World Systems: Economic Interpretations of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," Pacific Historical Review 65 (May 1996): 277–303 Fry, Joseph A.
These include The Rough Riders, a 1927 silent film A Message to Garcia, 1936 Rough Riders, a 1997 television miniseries directed by John Milius, and featuring Tom Berenger (Theodore Roosevelt), Gary Busey (Joseph Wheeler), Sam Elliott (Buckey O'Neill), Dale Dye (Leonard Wood), Brian Keith (William McKinley), George Hamilton (William Randolph Hearst), and R.
The Spanish–American War: A Historical Dictionary (Scarecrow Press, 1998) Berner, Brad K., ed.
London: Greenhill, 1998 Herring, George C.
The Spanish–American War: A Compact History (1969) Killblane, Richard E., "Assault on San Juan Hill," Military History, June 1998, Vol.
The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography University of North Carolina Press, 1998 Smith, Ephraim K.
A study commissioned by National Geographic magazine in 1999, using AME computer modeling, stated that a mine could have caused the explosion, but no definitive evidence was found. ===Declaring war=== After Maine was destroyed, New York City newspaper publishers Hearst and Pulitzer decided that the Spanish were to blame, and they publicized this theory as fact in their papers.
The Business History Review 74.01 (Spring 2000): 41–83.
Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003.
However, the Congress neglected to repeal the tax after the war ended four months later, and the tax remained in place for over 100 years until, on August 1, 2006, it was announced that the U.S.
"When Communication Fails: Spanish–American Crisis Diplomacy 1898," Amerikastudien, 2007, Vol.
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