Problems arise when people confuse the useful descriptive term with the old "theory" from the 1950s. == In politics == === Early usage === The notion that totalitarianism is total political power which is exercised by the state was formulated in 1923 by Giovanni Amendola, who described Italian Fascism as a system which was fundamentally different from conventional dictatorships.
Italian Fascist Benito Mussolini proclaimed: "Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state." Schmitt used the term Totalstaat in his influential 1927 work The Concept of the Political on the legal basis of an all-powerful state.
Jonathan Wiesen, "American Lynching in the Nazi Imagination: Race and Extra-Legal Violence in 1930s Germany", German History, (March 2018), Vol.
In his essay "Why I Write", Orwell wrote: "The Spanish war and other events in 1936–37 turned the scale and thereafter I knew where I stood.
When the time comes, either parliament submits or we will eliminate it." General Francisco Franco was determined not to have competing right-wing parties in Spain and CEDA was dissolved in April 1937.
Payne, A History of Fascism (London: Routledge, 1996). Rudolf Rocker, Nationalism and Culture (Covici-Friede, 1937). Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited (Chatham, N.J: Chatham House, 1987). Wolfgang Sauer, "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2 (December 1967): 404–24.
According to Benito Mussolini, this system politicizes everything spiritual and human: "Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state." One of the first people to use the term totalitarianism in the English language was the Austrian writer Franz Borkenau in his 1938 book The Communist International, in which he commented that it united the Soviet and German dictatorships more than it divided them.
The label totalitarian was twice affixed to Nazi Germany during Winston Churchill's speech of 5 October 1938, before the House of Commons in opposition to the Munich Agreement, by which France and Great Britain consented to Nazi Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland.
Later, Gil-Robles went into exile. George Orwell made frequent use of the word totalitarian and its cognates in multiple essays published in 1940, 1941 and 1942.
II (Abingdon Oxon and New York: Routledge, 2007), pp. 246–70. Franz Borkenau, The Totalitarian Enemy (London: Faber and Faber 1940). Karl Dietrich Bracher, "The Disputed Concept of Totalitarianism," pp. 11–33 from Totalitarianism Reconsidered edited by Ernest A.
Later, Gil-Robles went into exile. George Orwell made frequent use of the word totalitarian and its cognates in multiple essays published in 1940, 1941 and 1942.
Later, Gil-Robles went into exile. George Orwell made frequent use of the word totalitarian and its cognates in multiple essays published in 1940, 1941 and 1942.
The "totalitarian model" was first outlined in the 1950s by Carl Joachim Friedrich, who argued that the Soviet Union and other Communist states were "totalitarian" systems, with the personality cult and almost unlimited powers of the "great leader" such as Stalin.
Problems arise when people confuse the useful descriptive term with the old "theory" from the 1950s. == In politics == === Early usage === The notion that totalitarianism is total political power which is exercised by the state was formulated in 1923 by Giovanni Amendola, who described Italian Fascism as a system which was fundamentally different from conventional dictatorships.
Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (London: Seeker & Warburg, 1952). Enzo Traverso, Le Totalitarisme : Le XXe siècle en débat (Paris: Poche, 2001). S.
The concept became prominent in Western anti-communist political discourse during the Cold War era as a tool to convert pre-war anti-fascism into postwar anti-communism. In 1956, the political scientists Carl Joachim Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski were primarily responsible for expanding the usage of the term in university social science and professional research, reformulating it as a paradigm for the Soviet Union as well as fascist regimes.
Garland for providing little theoretical basis for the possibility of resistance within this "totalitarian" prison. == See also == Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism List of cults of personality List of totalitarian regimes == References == == Further reading == Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Schocken Books, 1958, new ed.
The "revisionist school" beginning in the 1960s focused on relatively autonomous institutions which might influence policy at the higher level.
Armstrong, The Politics of Totalitarianism (New York: Random House, 1961). Peter Bernholz, "Ideocracy and totalitarianism: A formal analysis incorporating ideology", Public Choice 108, 2001, pp. 33–75. Peter Bernholz, "Ideology, sects, state and totalitarianism.
Payne, A History of Fascism (London: Routledge, 1996). Rudolf Rocker, Nationalism and Culture (Covici-Friede, 1937). Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited (Chatham, N.J: Chatham House, 1987). Wolfgang Sauer, "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2 (December 1967): 404–24.
online. Leonard Schapiro, Totalitarianism (London: The Pall Mall Press, 1972). William Selinger.
/ London: Kennikat Press, 1981) . John Connelly, "Totalitarianism: Defunct Theory, Useful Word" Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 11#4 (2010) 819–835.
1, pp. 38–59. Zhelyu Zhelev, Fascism (Sofia: Fisbizmt, 1982). Slavoj Žižek, Did Somebody Say Totalitarianism? (London: Verso, 2001). == External links == 20th century in politics 21st century in politics Anti-communism Authoritarianism Political philosophy Political science terminology Political theories
53, Issue 3, pp. 622–43 Guy Hermet, with Pierre Hassner and Jacques Rupnik, Totalitarismes (Paris: Éditions Economica, 1984). Andrew Jainchill and Samuel Moyn.
Payne, A History of Fascism (London: Routledge, 1996). Rudolf Rocker, Nationalism and Culture (Covici-Friede, 1937). Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited (Chatham, N.J: Chatham House, 1987). Wolfgang Sauer, "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2 (December 1967): 404–24.
[...] Who are we to tell Václav Havel or Adam Michnik that they were fooling themselves when they perceived their rulers as totalitarian? Or for that matter any of the millions of former subjects of Soviet-type rule who use the local equivalents of the Czech totalita to describe the systems they lived under before 1989? It is a useful word and everyone knows what it means as a general referent.
1967). Abbott Gleason, Totalitarianism: The Inner History Of The Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), . Paul Hanebrink, "European Protestants Between Anti-Communism and Anti-Totalitarianism: The Other Interwar Kulturkampf?" Journal of Contemporary History (July 2018) Vol.
Payne, A History of Fascism (London: Routledge, 1996). Rudolf Rocker, Nationalism and Culture (Covici-Friede, 1937). Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited (Chatham, N.J: Chatham House, 1987). Wolfgang Sauer, "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2 (December 1967): 404–24.
Armstrong, The Politics of Totalitarianism (New York: Random House, 1961). Peter Bernholz, "Ideocracy and totalitarianism: A formal analysis incorporating ideology", Public Choice 108, 2001, pp. 33–75. Peter Bernholz, "Ideology, sects, state and totalitarianism.
Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (London: Seeker & Warburg, 1952). Enzo Traverso, Le Totalitarisme : Le XXe siècle en débat (Paris: Poche, 2001). S.
1, pp. 38–59. Zhelyu Zhelev, Fascism (Sofia: Fisbizmt, 1982). Slavoj Žižek, Did Somebody Say Totalitarianism? (London: Verso, 2001). == External links == 20th century in politics 21st century in politics Anti-communism Authoritarianism Political philosophy Political science terminology Political theories
"Historians and Totalitarianism: The Impact of German Unification." Journal of Contemporary History 36.4 (2001): 653–661. Felix Patrikeeff, "Stalinism, Totalitarian Society and the Politics of 'Perfect Control'", Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, (Summer 2003), Vol.
II (Abingdon Oxon and New York: Routledge, 2007), pp. 246–70. Franz Borkenau, The Totalitarian Enemy (London: Faber and Faber 1940). Karl Dietrich Bracher, "The Disputed Concept of Totalitarianism," pp. 11–33 from Totalitarianism Reconsidered edited by Ernest A.
Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Cambridge University Press, 2008). Carl Friedrich and Z.
In 2009, Theodore Dalrymple, a British author, physician and political commentator, has written for City Journal that brutalist structures are an expression of totalitarianism given that their grand, concrete-based design involves destroying gentler, more-human places such as gardens.
1967). Abbott Gleason, Totalitarianism: The Inner History Of The Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), . Paul Hanebrink, "European Protestants Between Anti-Communism and Anti-Totalitarianism: The Other Interwar Kulturkampf?" Journal of Contemporary History (July 2018) Vol.
Jonathan Wiesen, "American Lynching in the Nazi Imagination: Race and Extra-Legal Violence in 1930s Germany", German History, (March 2018), Vol.
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